Lecture 1

Hydraulic Machines
(Getting started)
Mahmoud N. Abdelmoez
Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department
Assiut University, Egypt

1
An overview of the course|
what are fluids
• Fluids are a phase of matter that includes liquids and gases.

• They deform (flow) continuously under an applied shear stress (or external force).

2
An overview of the course|
what science behind hydraulic machines? (fluid mechanics)
• Fluid mechanics is that discipline within the broad field of
applied mechanics that is concerned with the behavior of liquids
and gases at rest (fluid statics) or in motion (fluid dynamics).

3
An overview of the course|
Applications of fluid mechanics-BIOMEDICAL

4
An overview of the course|
References

5
Density
• The density of a fluid (, is defined as its mass per unit volume (kg/m3).
• The reciprocal of density is called: specific volume,
• The density of the fluid can be influenced by variations in the pressure and the
temperature.
• This influence is more evident in gases than in liquids.

water Air

%change= %change=
[(1000-950)/1000]*100 [(1.29-0.94)/1.29]*100
=5% =27%
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Specific weight & Specific gravity
Specific weight Specific gravity
The specific weight of a fluid (, is
The specific gravity of a fluid (SG), is
defined as its weight per unit
defined as the ratio of the density of
volume.
the fluid to the density of water at 4
It is related to density through:
Since it is the ratio of densities, the
value of SG does not depend on the
system of units used
Its units in SI system is: N/m3
NOTE:
• Density, specific weight, and specific gravity described the “heaviness” of the fluid.
• Properties to describe “fluidity” of the fluid, i.e., viscosity, will be discussed later. 7
Viscosity
• Density and specific gravity are measures of how “heavy” the fluid is.
• Although many oils are lighter than water (  900 kg/m3) however, they are more
sluggish than water because they are much more viscous.

• Viscosity is a measure of the “fluidity” of the fluid (i.e. how easily can this fluid flow).
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 Viscosity | Why fluids “flow”
F

F
F
x
• Solids has densely spaced molecules with large
intermolecular cohesive forces that allow the solid to
L
δ𝛽 maintain its shape, and to not be easily deformed.

F • When solids are acted on by a shearing stress, they will

initially deform (usually a very small deformation), but they
𝐹 Δ𝑥 will not deform continuously (flow).
𝜏= δ 𝛽=
𝐿
𝐴
(shear stress) (shear strain) • The shear strain,
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Viscosity | Why fluids “flow”
• Conversely, as the intermolecular forces in fluids (gases and
liquids) are weaker than that in solids, molecules in fluids have
more freedom of movement.
• Thus, fluids deforms continuously (flow) when acted on by
shearing stresses of any magnitude.

• We note that the fluid in contact with the fixed boundary (at
bottom) has zero velocity.
• This is called: no-slip boundary condition
• The velocity of the fluid increases in the vertical direction and
equals the velocity of the top plate.

• In other words, a velocity gradient develops in the fluid upon

the application of a shear stress, .
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Viscosity
• Definiting shear strain in fluids as , as we did for solids, we note that is function
of time (as . Thus,
• Consequently, we can define rate of shear strain
• Intuitively, we realize a proportionality between the applied shear stress, , and the
rate of shear strain (the higher the shear you apply, the higher is the velocity
gradient)

𝑑𝑢
𝜏∝
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𝑑𝑦 11
Viscosity
• When and are linearly related, we can express the previous
relation as
𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦
The constant of proportionality is called:
absolute viscosity, dynamic viscosity, or just viscosity

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Viscosity | Newtonian vs. non-Newtonian fluids

Fluids obeying the above

relation are called: Newtonian
fluids (e.g. water, oil, gasoline, air)

When and are NOT linearly

related, then the fluid is:
NON-Newtonian fluid

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Viscosity | Newtonian vs. non-Newtonian fluids
• Shear thinning and shear thickening fluids

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Viscosity |
dynamics, kinematic and their units
• The viscosity is measured by
• SI units: Pa.s (or kg/m.s)
• British units: 1 Poise = 1 gm/cm.s = 0.1 Pa.s
• 1 centi Poise (cP)=0.001 Pa.s

• The kinematic viscosity ()= dynamic viscosity/density

 = µ/ = kg/m.s x m3/kg = m2/s

• Units of kinematic viscosity ():

• SI units: m2/s
• British units: 1 Stokes (St) = cm2/s = 10-4 m2/s
• 1 cSt = 10-6 m2/s
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Viscosity | variation vs. temperature
• Temperature has an influence on viscosity of
fluids.
• In liquids, viscosity decreases with the increase
of temperature

• In gases, the viscosity increases with the

increase of temperature.

(can you explain why, using an atomistic point of view)

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Viscosity |
Viscometers/Rheometers (measuring the viscosity)
• Viscometers/rheometers are devices used to
measure viscosity of liquids.

• Viscometers are used with Newtonian fluids.

Rheometers can be used with non-Newtonian
fluids.

• The concept behind them is to subject the

fluid to shear stress, within certain standard
geometry (e.g. between rotating disks,
concentric cylinders, etc.), substitute in the
suitable equation to estimate the viscosity.

Rotational rheometer
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Viscosity
• Example 1 (to be solved on board)

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Vapor pressure
• The vapor pressure Pv of a pure substance is defined as the
pressure exerted by its vapor in equilibrium with its liquid at a
given temperature. For example, the vapor pressure of water at
20°C is 2.34 kPa.
• Therefore, a bucket of water at 20°C left in a room with dry air
at 1 atm will continue evaporating until one of two things
happens:
• The water evaporates away (there is not enough water to
establish phase equilibrium in the room)
• The evaporation stops when the partial pressure of the
water vapor in the room rises to 2.34 kPa at which point
phase equilibrium is established.

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Vapor pressure & cavitation
• If the pressure of a flowing liquid decreases until it equals its vapor pressure, the liquid
will start boiling.
• Liquid pressure can decrease due to increase in velocity or due to increase in
elevation (height)
• This phenomenon is called Cavitation, because the vapor bubbles form “cavities” within
the liquid.
• Once these bubbles move away from the low pressure region, they collapse and produce
pressure waves that can damage solid objects in touch with the liquid.

An impeller of a pump
damaged by cavitation

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Vapor pressure & saturation pressure

• Pv is a property of the pure substance,

and turns out to be identical to the

saturation pressure Psat of the liquid.

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