Chapter 11

Complex Numbers

Last modified: 11/11/2021

i i captain!

Here’s something that someone has almost

certainly spoiled for you already…

𝑖=√ −1 ?
Complex versus imaginary numbers

Imaginary number: of form

Complex number: of form

? part
Real ? part
Imaginary

3+ 4 𝑖
Putting complex numbers in the preferred form
We tend to ensure real and imaginary components are grouped together.
(a, b and c are real constants)

a + 3i – 4 + bi ? + b)i
= a – 4 + (3
2a – 3bi + 3 – 6ci = 2a+3 – 3(b
? + 2c)i

Convention 1
Just like we’d write 6 instead of 6, the i appears after any real constants, so
we might write 5ki or i.

An exception is when we involve a function.

e.g. i sin  and i√3
Why? This avoids ambiguity over whether ? the function is being applied to the i.

Convention 2
In the same way that we often initially use x and y as real-valued variables, we
often use z first to represent complex values, then w.
Why complex numbers?
Complex numbers were originally introduced by the Italian mathematician Cardano in the 1500s to allow him to
represent the roots of polynomials which weren’t ‘real’. They can also be used to represent outputs of functions
for inputs not in the usual valid domain, e.g. Logs of negative numbers, or even the factorial of negative
numbers!
Some other major applications of Complex Numbers:

1 Fractals
A Mandelbrot Set is the most popular ‘fractal’. For
each possible complex number c, we see if z n+1 = zn2
+ c is not divergent (using z0 = 0), leading to the
diagram on the right. Coloured diagrams can be
obtained by seeing how quickly divergence occurs
for each complex c (if divergent). This is called an Argand
Diagram. We’ll use it later.
2 Analytic Number Theory
Number Theory is the study of integers. Analytic Number Theory treats integers as
reals/complex numbers to use other (‘analytic’) methods to study them. For example,
the Riemann Zeta Function allows complex numbers as inputs, and is closely related to
the distribution of prime numbers.

3 Physics and Engineering

Used in Signal Analysis, Quantum Mechanics, Fluid Dynamics, Relativity, Control Theory...
Manipulation and application
Here’s a flavour of some of things you’ll be initially expected to do...

Simplify

? ?

Solve Simplify (8 + i)(3 – 2i)

= 24 – 16i + 3i – 2i2
? = 24 – 16i?+ 3i + 2
Solve = 26 – 13i
Using the quadratic formula:

?
 Multiplying
Example: Let z1 = 1 + 3i and z2 = 5 – 2i, find z1z2.
(1 + 3i)(5 – 2i) = 5 – 2i + 5i – 6i 2 The quick way to think about
= 5 –?2i + 15i + 6 this is that i reverses the sign.
2

= 11 + 13i

1 Evaluate the following: 3 Calculate z1z2.

a) = 4i ? a) z1 = 1 + i z2 = 1 – i z?
1z 2 = 2
b) = 5i
? b) z1 = 2 + i z2 = 2 – 2i z1z2?= 6 – 2i
c) = i√3
? c) z1 = 3 + 2i z2 = 4 – 3i z1z2?= 18 – i
z1z2?= -22 –
d) = i√7
? d) z1 = -3 + i z2 = 5 + 7i
e) =2i√2
? 16i ?
e) z1 = 7 – 3i z2 = 3 – 7i z z ?= -58i
1 2

2 Calculate z2 for the following z.

4 f)By using
z1 = -1a–Binomial
i z2 = 9Expansion,
+ 8i z1z2 = -1 –
determine (1 + i)5.
17i
a) z=1+i z?2 = 2i = 1 + 5i + 10i2 +10i3 + 5i4 + i5
b) z=1–i z?2 = -2i = 1 + 5i – 10 –?10i + 5+ i
c) z = 3 + 2i z2?= 5 + 12i = -4 – 4i
d) z = 7 – 4i z2 = 33 – 56i?
e) z = -3 + 3i z2 = -18i ? 5 What is the value of:
a) i100 = (i4?
)25 = 125 = 1
f) ?
z = a + bi z2 = a2 – b2 + 2abi
b) i2003 = i2000 x?i3 = 1 x i3 = -i
Complex Conjugates
Remember in C1 how we rationalised the denominator?

Suppose x1 = a + √b and x2 = a - √b
Then:
x 1x 2 = a 2 – b
x1 + x2 = 2a

Both these results are rational.

?
The same trick works with complex numbers.
! If z = x + yi, then we define z* = x – yi.
z* is known as the complex conjugate of z. The fact the first is real
will help us with
dividing complex
z z* = x2 + ?
y2 numbers.
z + z* = 2x ? We’ll see the
which are both real.? significance of the
second later.
Quickfire Questions
Given z, determine z z*.

1 z = 3 + 2i z z* = 13?
2 z = 3 – 2i z z* = 13?
3 z = 5 + 4i z z* = 41?
4 z=1+i z z* = 2 ?
5 z = 4 – 2i z z* = 20?
Dividing

(2 – 3i)
__26__ = __26__ 52 – 78i
=
2 + 3i (2 + 3i )(2 – 3i) 13

= 4 – 6i

Click to Brosolve
Exercises
Put all the following in the form a + bi.

_1_
1
1+i = 1?- i 5
10 + 3i = 16 –?17i
2 1 + 2i 5
_i_
2 _10_ = 3 ?- i 6
1–i = -1 + i?
3+i 2
8 – 4i = 2 + 2i
3 1-i = -i ?
7
1 – 3i ?
1+i
8
a+i = a 2
– 1?+ 2ai
4
14 – 5i = 4 + 13i a–i a2 + 1
3 – 2i ?
9 Edexcel June 2013 (R)
Given that (2 + i)(z + 3i) = 10 – 5i, find z,
giving your answer in the form a + bi.
z = 3 – 7i (either by dividing 10 – 5i by 2 + i and
?
subtracting 3i, or replacing z with a + bi before
expanding and comparing real and imaginary parts).
Argand Diagrams
Argand Diagrams are a way of geometrically representing complex numbers.
Im[z]
Click to move.
3
1+i 2 – 3i
2

Re[z]
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 -1 + 2i -3 – i
-1

-2

-3

z = x + yi
The x-axis is the real component.
The y-axis is the imaginary component.
Argument and Modulus
In FP2, you’ll encounter something called ‘polar coordinates’. This is an alternative way
of representing coordinate, which instead of using the (x,y) position (known as a
Cartesian coordinate), uses the distance from the origin and the angle.
(Don’t write anything down yet!)
Im[z]

3
z = 2 + 3i
Distance from origin:
2
√(22 + 32) = √13
This is known as the
1
 ?
modulus of z, and we write
Re[z] |2 + 3i| = √13
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3
Angle: (anticlockwise from the real axis)
-1
Using trigonometry, we
-2 have (in radians):
tan-1(3/2) = 0.983
-3 ? as the
This is known
argument of z, and we
write:
arg(2 + 3i) = 0.983
Argument and Modulus

Im[z]
!
If
|z|

arg z Modulus of z:
Re[z]

Argument of z:
Usual range - < arg z ≤ . Known as the
principal argument if in this range.

when
Use trig common sense for other
quadrants.
Check your Understanding

z |z| arg(z)
1 1 ? 0 ?
-i 1 ? -/2 ?
-1 + i √2 ? 3/4 ?
-5 – 2i √29 ? -2.761 ?
Exercises
Give exact answers where possible, otherwise to 3dp.

1 z |z| arg(z) 2 z |z| arg(z)

-1 1 ? -√3 - i 2 ?-5/6
i 1 ?/2 3+i √10 ?0.322
1+i √2 ?p/4 2 – 5i √29 ?-1.190
1 + 2i √5 ?1.107 -4 + 3i 5 ?2.498
1 – 2i √5
?-1.107 -1 – 4i √17
?-1.816
-1 + 2i √5 ?2.034 3 Given that arg(3 + a + 4i) = /3 and that
-1 – 2i √5 ?-2.034 a is real, determine a.
3 + 4i 5 ?0.927 ? a = (4/√3) – 3
4/(3 + a) = √3. Thus
-5 + 12i 13 ?1.966 4 Give that arg(5 + i + ai) = /4 and that a
1 – i√3 2 ?-/3 is real, determine a.
(a + 1)/5 = 1. So a?= 4

5 Given that arg(santa + 3 + 2i) = /2 and

that santa is real, determine santa.
santa = -3
?
Argument-modulus form
What’s the point of |z| and arg(z)?
We’ll see in FP2 that we can express a complex number as ., where we’ll also see the
infamous . But for now, let’s get halfway there...

Im[z]
Suppose that r = |z| and  = arg(z).
How could we express z in terms of
|z| r and o?

!
z = x + yi
arg z
= r cos  + r i sin 
Re[z] = r(cos  + i sin )

This is known as the modulus-

argument form (or the polar form)
of z.
Argument-modulus form
Question 1 from earlier...

1 z |z| arg(z) Mod-arg form

-1 1  z = cos  + i sin ?
i 1 /2 ?
z = cos(/2) + i sin(/2)
1+i √2 /4 z = √2(cos(/4) ?
+ i sin(/4))
1 + 2i √5 1.107 z = √5(cos 1.107?+ i sin 1.107)
1 – 2i √5 -1.107 ? + i sin(-1.107))
z = √5(cos(-1.107)
-1 + 2i √5 2.034 z = √5(cos 2.034?+ i sin 2.034)
-1 – 2i √5 -2.034 ? + i sin(-2.034))
z = √5(cos(-2.034)
3 + 4i 5 0.927 z = 5(cos 0.927 +?i sin 0.927)
-5 + 12i 13 1.966 ? i sin 1.966)
z = 13(cos 1.966+
1 – i√3 √7 -/3 z = √7(cos(-/3)?+ i sin(-/3))
|z1z2| and arg(z1z2)
When we multiply two complex numbers, we multiply their moduli, and we add their
arguments.

So can we prove this, i.e. that:

and

Let and .

Then
?
So
and

The following C3 identities may be useful:

 Comparing coefficients – and find the square root
If two complex numbers are equal, then clearly both their real and imaginary
parts are equal. i.e. if then and .

Q Given that where and are real, find the value of and .

Expanding:
So and . ?
Solving: . We could have also found

Q Calculate .

So
and
?
So
Exercise 1G

1 where and are real.

Find the value of and of .

?
where is real. Find the value of .
4
?
Find real and such that
6

?
Find the square roots of

9 Find the square roots of

?
10
Find the square roots of
?
11
?
Roots of polynomials
Any cubic (with coefficient of x3 of 1) can be expressed as:
y = (x – α)(x – )(x – )
where α,  and  are the roots.

However, these 3 roots may not necessarily all be real...

α   α α =

All 3 roots are real. 1 real root, 2 ?

complex roots. ? repeated)
3 real roots (one
Are there any other possibilities?
No: since cubics have a range of – to +, it must cross the x axis.
?
And it can’t cross an even number of times, otherwise the cubic
would start and end in the same vertical direction.
Roots of polynomials
Classic Question:
x = 2 is one of the roots of the polynomial x3 – x – 6
Find the other two roots.

Use polynomial division (as per C2) to divide x 3 – x – 6 by (x – 2).

This gives x2 + 2x + 3.
?
Using the quadratic formula, we obtain the roots:
x = -1  i√2

Your Go:
is one of the roots of the polynomial 2x3 – 5x2 + 5x + 4.
Find the other two roots.

We could divide by , but it would be cleaner to divide by .

This gives . Using the quadratic formula, we obtain the roots:
?
Relationship between complex roots
For the first cubic, we found the two complex roots were:

Q What is the relationship between these two roots?

They’re complex conjugates. ?
Q Can we prove this will always be the case for cubics with real coefficients?
Suppose a and b are the two complex roots. Then (x – α)(x – β) in the
expansion must give real coefficients.

(x – α)(x – β) = x2 – (a + β)x + αβ
Therefore α + β and αβ must both be real. We saw earlier that this is
?
satisfied when α and β are complex conjugates.
(Although technically our proof isn’t complete, because we’ve shown that the roots being
complex conjugates is a sufficient condition for the coefficients of the cubic being real, not a
necessary one. However, we know the imaginary components of α and β must be the same but
negative of each other, so that in α + β they cancel out, and we can proceed from there to
show the real components of α and β must be the same).

In summary, complex roots of polynomials always come in

complex conjugate pairs.
Finding other roots
Another classic type of exam question:
-1 + 2i is one of the roots of the cubic x3 – x2 – x – 15.
Find the other two roots.

Other complex root is the complex conjugate: -1 – 2i.

Now expand (x – (-1 + 2i))(x – (-1 – 2i))
= x2 – (-1 – 2i)x – (-1 + 2i)x + (-1 + 2i)(-1 – 2i)
= x2 + 2x + 5 ?
We can now either use polynomial division or “Factor
Theorem with trial and error” to establish the real root as 3.

Your turn:
2 – i is one of the roots of the cubic x3 – 11x + 20. Find
the other two roots.

2 + i is other complex root.

?
(x – (2 + i))(x – (2 – i)) = x2 – 4x + 5.
Dividing we get (x + 4), so real root is -4.
Exercise 1H
1 Given that 1 + 2i is one of the roots of a quadratic equation with real coefficients, find the
equation.
?
Given that , where is real, is one of the roots of a quadratic equation with real
3 coefficients, find the equation.
?
5 Show that is a root of the equation .
Hence solve the equation completely.
Roots are 3, ,
?
Given that is one of the roots of the equation , solve the equation completely.
7 Roots are 4, -4 + i and -4 - i

?
Given that is one of the roots of the equation , solve the equation completely.
Roots are 2 + 3i, 2 – 3i, -3 + i and -3 – i
9
Find the four roots of the equation . Show these roots on an Argand Diagram.
?
Roots are 2, -2, 2i, -2i

10
?