FUNCTIONS

OVERVIEW
OVERVIEW
 In real life, we often find ourselves doing the same task
over and over
 Example: make toast and jam for breakfast in the morning
 Example: drive our car from home to work and back

 Once we have decided on our favorite way to do these

tasks, we can write down the steps we normally take
 Make a recipe card for making breakfast items
 Write down series of turns to travel from A to B
 This written descriptions will let others reuse our work

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

OVERVIEW
 Functions in C++ can be used much in the same way
 We write down the code we want to reuse when we
declare the function
 Then to execute this code, we call the function from the
main program

 This approach is a big time saver for programmers

because they can focus on implementing and debugging
smaller pieces of code, and then reuse this work

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

OVERVIEW
 Functions play an important role in software development
 Break a big problem down into a sequence of smaller
problems that we know how to solve
 Implement and test solutions to each of the smaller
problems using functions
 Use the functions we created above to create an effective
solution to the big problem

 Functions in the same “category” are often packaged

together to create function libraries
 C++ has function built in libraries for input/output, string
manipulation, mathematics, random numbers, etc.

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

OVERVIEW

 Lesson objectives:
 Learn the syntax for declaring functions in C++
 Learn how to call and trace the execution of functions
 Learn how to pass value and reference parameters
 Study example programs showing their use
 Complete online labs on functions
 Complete programming project using functions

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

FUNCTIONS

PART 1
DECLARING FUNCTIONS
DECLARING FUNCTIONS
 In order to declare a function in C++ we need to provide
the following information:
 The name of the function
 List of operations to be performed
 Type of data value to be returned
 Types and names of parameters (if any)
 Declaration of local variables (if any)
 Value to be returned to the main program (if any)

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

DECLARING FUNCTIONS
 Function return values
 The return( ) statement exits function with specified value
 You can use return( ) anywhere in function, but the bottom
of the function is preferred

 The type of the return value depends on the application

 Typical mathematical functions return float values
 Typical I/O functions return input data or error/success flag
 Some functions perform calculations but return no value
(we use the special data type “void” in this case)

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

DECLARING FUNCTIONS
 Consider the following task:
 Declare an integer variable
 Prompt the user to input a value between 1..9
 Read the integer value from the user
 Check the range of the input value
 Perform calculation on input value

 We can declare a C++ function to package this code

together so it can be reused in different programs

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

DECLARING FUNCTIONS
// Function declaration example Name of the
int Lucky() function we are
declaring
{
int Number;
cout << "Pick a number between 1..9: ";
cin >> Number;
if ((Number >= 1) && (Number <= 9))
Number = 42 / Number;
return( Number );
}

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

DECLARING FUNCTIONS
// Function declaration example
int Lucky()
{
int Number;
cout << "Pick a number between 1..9: ";
Operations to
cin >> Number;
be performed
if ((Number >= 1) && (Number <= 9)) by the function

Number = 42 / Number;
return( Number );
}

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

DECLARING FUNCTIONS
// Function declaration example
int Lucky() Data type of
the function
{ return value
int Number;
cout << "Pick a number between 1..9: ";
cin >> Number;
if ((Number >= 1) && (Number <= 9))
Number = 42 / Number;
return( Number );
}

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

DECLARING FUNCTIONS
// Function declaration example
int Lucky()
Local variable
{ which can only be
int Number; accessed and
used from within
cout << "Pick a number between 1..9: "; this function
cin >> Number;
if ((Number >= 1) && (Number <= 9))
Number = 42 / Number;
return( Number );
}

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

DECLARING FUNCTIONS
// Function declaration example
int Lucky()
{
int Number;
cout << "Pick a number between 1..9: ";
cin >> Number;
if ((Number >= 1) && (Number <= 9))
Number = 42 / Number; Value returned by
the function to the
return( Number ); main program
}

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

CALLING FUNCTIONS
 Now that we have declared the function called Lucky how
can we use this function in the main program?
 We need to specify the following in a function call
 The name of the function we wish to execute
 Variables passed in as parameters (if any)
 Operations to be performed with return value (if any)

 The main program will jump to function code, execute it,

and return with the value that was calculated
 Return values can be used to assign variables or they can
be output (we should not ignore them)

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

CALLING FUNCTIONS
int main()
{ This function call will
cause the main program
… to jump to the Lucky
/Function usage example function, execute that
code and store the return
int Num; value in variable Num
Num = Lucky();
cout << "Your Lucky number is " << Num << endl;
…
}

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

CALLING FUNCTIONS
 We can trace the executions functions in a program using
the “black box” method
 Draw a box for the main program
 Draw a second box for the function being called
 Draw an arrow from the function call in the main program
to the top of the function being called
 Draw a second arrow from the bottom of the function back
to the main program labeled with the return value
 Using this black box diagram we can visualize the
execution of the program by following the arrows

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

CALLING FUNCTIONS

int main() int Lucky()

{ {

return(…)
Num = Lucky() }

We leave the main

program and jump to
} the Lucky function

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

CALLING FUNCTIONS

int main() int Lucky()

{ {

return(…)
Num = Lucky() }

We then execute the code

inside the Lucky function
}

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

CALLING FUNCTIONS

int main() int Lucky()

{ {
…

return(…)
Num = Lucky() 6 }

When we reach the bottom of

… the Lucky function we return a
} value to the main program
In this case, if the user enters
7 the return value would be 6

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

CALLING FUNCTIONS
int main()
{ You can call the function
… more than once. Each
time you call it, the
/Function usage example
function will be executed
int Num;
Num = Lucky();
cout << “Your Lucky number is << Num << endl;

Num = Lucky();
cout << "Your Lucky number is " << Num << endl;
…
}

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

CALLING FUNCTIONS
int main()
{… You can call the function
with different variables
//Function usage example
int Num, Value;
Num = Lucky();
Value = Lucky();
cout << "Your Lucky number is " << Num << endl;
cout << “Your second Lucky number is << Value << endl;
…
}

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

CALLING FUNCTIONS
// Function with multiple returns
float Magic()
{
int Height, Weight;
cout << "Enter your height in inches: ";
cin >> Height;
cout << "Enter your weight in pounds: ";
cin >> Weight; This function has two
if ((Height > 0) && (Weight > 0)) return statements,
one for valid user
return(Height/Weight);
input data and one
else for invalid input data
return(-1);
}

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

CALLING FUNCTIONS
// Style: prefer to have only one return
float Magic()
{
int Height, Weight;
float Result;
cout << "Enter your height in inches: ";
cin >> Height;
cout << "Enter your weight in pounds: ";
cin >> Weight; This function sets a
if ((Height > 0) && (Weight > 0)) local variable to an
Result = Height/Weight); appropriate value
else that is returned as
Result = -1; the last statement.
return(Result);
}

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

CALLING FUNCTIONS
…
// Function usage example This function call will
float Value; cause the main program
to jump to the Magic
Value = Magic(); function, execute that
if (Value < 0) code and store the return
value in variable Value
cout << "You are silly" << endl;
else if (Value < 2)
cout << "You are under weight" << endl;
else if (Value > 3)
cout << "You are under tall" << endl;
…
CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming
LOCAL AND GLOBAL VARIABLES
 “Local variables” are defined inside the main program or
any function
 Local variables are typically used to perform calculations
 Local variables can only be accessed within the function
 Initialize local variables each time the function is called

 “Global variables” are defined outside the main program

or any function
 Global variables are often used for status flags
 We can access global variables anywhere in the program
 Initialize global variables each time the program is run

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

LOCAL AND GLOBAL
VARIABLES
// Global variables
int Value = 42; These global variables
can be used anywhere
float Pi = 3.14159; in the program

// Function declaration
float Silly()
{
// Local variables
These local variables
float Value; can only be used in the
int Data; function Silly
…
}

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

LOCAL AND GLOBAL
VARIABLES
// Global variables
int Value = 42;
In this case, the local
float Pi = 3.14159; variable Value “hides”
the global variable with
the same name, so we
// Function declaration
can not access the
float Silly() global variable from
{ within this function
// Local variables
float Value;
int Data;
…
}

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

LOCAL VARIABLES

// Function declaration
void FunctionOne ()
{ Multiple functions can
float Temp= 1.7; have the same local
cout << Temp << endl ; // This will output 1.7 variable; This includes
} main() and other
function(s) used by the
same program
// Function declaration
float FunctionTwo()
{
// Local variables
float Temp = 0.0;
cout << Temp << endl ; // This will output 0.0
…
}

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

LOCAL AND GLOBAL VARIABLES
…
// Code inside Silly function
cout << "Enter your age in months: ";
cin >> Data; // Changes local variable Data
Pi = 22.0 / 7.0; // Changes global variable Pi
Value = Data * Pi; // Changes local variable Value
return(Value); // Returns local variable Value
}

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

SUMMARY
 In this section we have shown how a function can be
declared in in C++
 We have also shown how a function can be called from
within the main program
 Finally, we discussed the difference between local and
global variables in a C++ program

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

FUNCTIONS

PART 2
FUNCTION PARAMETERS
VALUE PARAMETERS
 A function may need some input to perform desired task
 We can pass data values into function using parameters
 We need to specify the data type and and the names of
parameters when defining a function
 We need to specify the value of the parameter when
calling the function

 Example
 To calculate the square of a number in a function, we need
to pass in the number to square as a value parameter

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

VALUE PARAMETERS
// Function with value parameter
Number is a value
float Square( const float Number ) parameter of the
Square function
{
float Result = Number * Number;
return( Result );
}
We can use Number in
our function calculations

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

VALUE PARAMETERS
int main()
…
// Calling functions with value parameters
float Num = 5;
cout << Square(3) << endl;
cout << Square(Num) << endl;
…
}

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

VALUE PARAMETERS

int main() float Square(3)

{ {
…

cout << Square(3) return(…)

cout << Square(Num) 9 }

When we call Square(3) we

… initialize the parameter
} Number with 3 and return
the value of 3*3

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

VALUE PARAMETERS

int main() float Square(5)

{ {
…

cout << Square(3) return(…)

cout << Square(Num) 25 }

When we call Square(Num)

… we initialize the parameter
} Number with 5 and return
the value of 5*5

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

VALUE PARAMETERS
 Some comments on value parameters:
 In general, parameter passing is a much safer way to send
information into a function than using global variables
 By using “const” before the parameter data type, we can
treat value parameters like a constant within the function
 If we omit “const” we can treat the value parameter like a
local variable and modify it as needed in the function
 Changes to a value parameter in a function will NOT
change the variable in main used to call the function

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

SUM DIGITS EXAMPLE
 Assume we are given an integer between 0..99999

 How can we calculate the sum of the digits in the number?

 Find each of the 5 digits in the number
 Add them up to get the sum of digits

 How can we implement this?

 We can write a program to do this where the main program
prompts the user for input and does error checking
 Then we can call a function to do the actual calculations
on the input value

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

SUM DIGITS EXAMPLE
// Function to calculate sum of digits
int SumDigits(const int Number)
{
// Get digits and calculate their sum
int Digit1, Digit2, Digit3, Digit4, Digit5;
Digit1 = (Number / 10000);
Digit2 = (Number % 10000) / 1000;
Digit3 = (Number % 1000) / 100;
Digit4 = (Number % 100) / 10;
Digit5 = (Number % 10);
return (Digit1 + Digit2 + Digit3 + Digit4 + Digit5);
}

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

SUM DIGITS EXAMPLE
// Main body of program
int main()
{
int Input;
cout << "Enter number in [0..99999] range: ";
cin >> Input;
if ((Input < 0) || (Input > 99999))
cout << "Number must be in [0..99999]" << endl;
else
cout << ”Sum digits = " << SumDigits(Input)<< endl;
return 0 ;
}

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

SUM DIGITS EXAMPLE
Sample program output:

Enter number in [0..99999] range: 123

Magic number = 6

Enter number in [0..99999] range: 23456

Magic number = 20

Enter number in [0..99999] range: 222222

Number must be in [0..99999]

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

REFERENCE PARAMETERS
 In some applications a function may need to change the
value of one or more variables in the main program
 We can use a reference parameters to accomplish this
 We need to specify the data type and the name of
reference parameters when defining the function
 We need to add "&" between the data type and name to
specify this is a reference parameter
 When we call the function, we give the names of variables
we want the function to have access to
 This makes the reference parameter an “alias” for the
variable in the main program

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

REFERENCE PARAMETERS
// Function with reference parameter
void GetGrade(const float Average, char & Grade)
{
if (Average >= 90) Grade = 'A';
Grade is a reference
else if (Average >= 80) Grade = 'B'; parameter of the
else if (Average >= 70) Grade = 'C'; GetGrade function

else if (Average >= 60) Grade = 'D';

else Grade = 'F';
}

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

REFERENCE PARAMETERS
// Function with reference parameter
void GetGrade(const float Average, char & Grade)
{
if (Average >= 90) Grade = 'A';
else if (Average >= 80) Grade = 'B'; Changes to Grade in
this function will modify
else if (Average >= 70) Grade = 'C';
some variable in the
else if (Average >= 60) Grade = 'D'; main program
else Grade = 'F';
}

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

REFERENCE PARAMETERS
// Function with reference parameter
void GetGrade(const float Average, char & Grade)
{
if (Average >= 90) Grade = 'A';
else if (Average >= 80) Grade = 'B';
else if (Average >= 70) Grade = 'C';
else if (Average >= 60) Grade = 'D';
else Grade = 'F';
} Notice that this is a
void function and there
is no return statement

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

REFERENCE PARAMETERS
int main()
{
…
Grade is now an alias
// Calling function with reference parameter
for NewGrade in the
float NewScore = 86.4; GetGrade function
char NewGrade = ' ';
GetGrade(NewScore, NewGrade);
cout << "Your final grade is " << NewGrade << endl;
…
}

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

REFERENCE PARAMETERS
 Advantages:
 We can use reference parameters to modify multiple
variables in the main program
 No data is copied from the main program to the function
when we make the function call (unlike value parameters)

 Disadvantages
 We must provide a variable name when calling functions
with reference parameters
 Keeping track of the “aliases” created by reference
parameters is more difficult than tracing value parameters

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

PRIME FACTORS EXAMPLE
 Assume we are given an integer between 1..100

 How can we calculate and print the prime factors?

 Check to see how many times the prime numbers 2,3,5,7
divide evenly into the input value (i.e. input % factor == 0)

 How can we implement this?

 We can write a program to do this where the main program
prompts the user for input and does error checking
 Then we can call a function to check to see how many
times each of the prime numbers above are factors

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

PRIME FACTORS EXAMPLE
// Function to check prime factors
void CheckFactors( int & Number, const int Factor )
{
while (Number % Factor == 0) Number is a reference
{ parameter and Factor is a
value parameter
cout << Factor << " is a factor\n";
Number = Number / Factor;
}
} Here is where we modify
the reference parameter
which is an alias for a
variable in main program
CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming
PRIME FACTORS EXAMPLE
// Main body of program
int main()
{
// Get user input
int Num;
cout << "Enter number in [1..100] range: ";
cin >> Num;

// Check input value

if ((Num < 1) || (Num > 100))
cout << "Number must be in [1..100]" << endl;
CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming
PRIME FACTORS EXAMPLE
…
// Calculate prime factors
else
{
CheckFactors(Num, 2);
We call the CheckFactors
CheckFactors(Num, 3); function four times to
CheckFactors(Num, 5); check primes 2,3,5,7

CheckFactors(Num, 7);
if (Num > 1) cout << Num << " is a factor\n";
}

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

PRIME FACTORS EXAMPLE
Sample program output:

Enter number in [1..100] range: 42

2 is a factor
3 is a factor
7 is a factor

Enter number in [1..100] range: 65

5 is a factor
13 is a factor

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

SUMMARY
 In this section we have described how value parameters
and reference parameters can be used to get data in and
out of functions
 Value parameters: “const int Number”
 Reference parameters: “float & Value”

 We have also shown two example programs that use

functions with parameters to solve problems
 Sum of digits
 Prime factors

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

FUNCTIONS

PART 3
RECURSION
RECURSION
 Recursion is a very powerful problem solving method

 Recursive functions call themselves to solve problems

 We reduce "size" of problem each recursive function call
 Need to have a terminating condition to stop recursion
 Visualize using black box method with inputs and returns

 Recursive solutions can also be implemented via iteration

 Sometimes the recursive function is smaller
 Sometimes the iterative function is faster

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

RECURSION
 Example: calculating N factorial

 Recursive solution solves problem in terms of itself

 Factorial(N) = N * Factorial(N-1)
 This is the recurrence relationship

 We must stop at some point

 Factorial(1) = 1
 This is the terminating condition

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

RECURSION
// Recursive Factorial function
int Factorial(const int Num)
{ This is the terminating
condition of for the
if (Num <= 1) recursive function
return(1);
else
return( Num * Factorial(Num-1) ); Notice that we are
recursively calling the
} Factorial function with a
smaller parameter value

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

RECURSION

int main() int Factorial(3)

{ {
… …
Factorial(3) Factorial(2)
… …
} }

• First, the main program calls Factorial(3)

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

RECURSION

int main() int Factorial(3) int Factorial(2)

{ { {
… … …
Factorial(3) Factorial(2) Factorial(1)
… … …
} } }

• First, the main program calls Factorial(3)

• Then, Factorial(3) calls Factorial(2)

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

RECURSION

int main() int Factorial(3) int Factorial(2) int Factorial(1)

{ { { {
… … … …
Factorial(3) Factorial(2) Factorial(1)
… … … …
} } } }

• First, the main program calls Factorial(3)

• Then, Factorial(3) calls Factorial(2)
• Then, Factorial(2) calls Factorial(1)

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

RECURSION

int main() int Factorial(3) int Factorial(2) int Factorial(1)

{ { { {
… … … …
Factorial(3) Factorial(2) Factorial(1)
… … … …
} } } }
1
• First, the main program calls Factorial(3)
• Then, Factorial(3) calls Factorial(2)
• Then, Factorial(2) calls Factorial(1)
• Then, Factorial(1) returns 1

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

RECURSION

int main() int Factorial(3) int Factorial(2) int Factorial(1)

{ { { {
… … … …
Factorial(3) Factorial(2) Factorial(1)
… … … …
} } } }
2 1
• First, the main program calls Factorial(3)
• Then, Factorial(3) calls Factorial(2)
• Then, Factorial(2) calls Factorial(1)
• Then, Factorial(1) returns 1
• Then, Factorial(2) returns 2*1=2

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

RECURSION

int main() int Factorial(3) int Factorial(2) int Factorial(1)

{ { { {
… … … …
Factorial(3) Factorial(2) Factorial(1)
… … … …
} } } }
6 2 1
• First, the main program calls Factorial(3)
• Then, Factorial(3) calls Factorial(2)
• Then, Factorial(2) calls Factorial(1)
• Then, Factorial(1) returns 1
• Then, Factorial(2) returns 2*1=2
• Finally, Factorial(3) returns 3*2=6

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

RECURSION
 In this case the iterative solution is the same size and will
run slightly faster than the recursive solution

// Iterative Factorial function

int Factorial(const int Num)
{
int Product = 1;
for (int Count = 1; Count <= Num; Count++)
Product = Product * Count;
return( Product );
}

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

RECURSION
 Example: calculating sum of all numbers from 1..N

 Recursive solution solves problem in terms of itself

 Sum(N) = N + Sum(N-1)
 This is called the recurrence relationship

 We must stop at some point

 Sum(1) = 1
 This is called the terminating condition

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

RECURSION
// Recursive summation function
int Sum(const int Num)
{ This is the terminating
condition of for the
if (Num <= 1) recursive function
return(1);
else
return( Num + Sum(Num-1) ); Notice that we are
recursively calling the
} Sum function with a
smaller parameter value

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

RECURSION

int main() int Sum(3) int Sum(2) int Sum(1)

{ { { {
… … … …
Sum(3) Sum(2) Sum(1)
… … … …
} } } }
6 3 1
• First, the main program calls Sum(3)
• Then, Sum(3) calls Sum (2)
• Then, Sum(2) calls Sum (1)
• Then, Sum(1) returns 1
• Then, Sum(2) returns 2+1=3
• Finally, Sum(3) returns 3+3=6

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

RECURSION
 In this case the iterative solution is the same size and will
run slightly faster than the recursive solution

// Iterative summation function

int Sum(const int Num)
{
int Total = 0;
for (int Count = 0; Count <= Num; Count++)
Total = Total + Count;
return(Total);
}

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

RECURSION
 Example: calculating the Nth Fibonacci number from the
sequence 1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55…

 Recursive solution solves problem in terms of itself

 Fibonacci(N) = Fibonacci(N-1) + Fibonacci(N-2)
 This is the recurrence relationship

 We must stop at some point

 Fibonacci(1) = 1
 Fibonacci(2) = 1
 These are the terminating conditions

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

RECURSION
 This recursive function calls itself twice each time it is called
so there are a lot of function calls to calculate the answer

// Recursive Fibonacci function

int Fibonacci(const int Num)
{
if (Num <= 2)
return(1);
else
return( Fibonacci(Num-1) + Fibonacci(Num-2) );
}

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

RECURSION
// Iterative Fibonacci function
int Fibonacci(const int Num)
{
int Num1 = 1;
int Num2 = 1;  This iterative function
for (int Count = 1; Count < Num; Count++) is slightly longer than
{ the recursive solution
but it is much faster
int Num3 = Num1 + Num2;
at run time
Num1 = Num2;
Num2 = Num3;
}
return (Num1);
}

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

RECURSION
 What happens if we make a mistake implementing the
recurrence relationship?
 If the recursive function call has the same parameter value
the function will call itself forever
 This programming bug is called infinite recursion
 Your program will crash with a message like “stack
overflow” because it ran out of memory

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

RECURSION
// Infinite recursion function
int Forever(int Num)
{
if (Num < 0)
return(0);
else We are recursively
return( Forever(Num) + 1 ); calling the Forever
function with the same
} parameter value

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

RECURSION
 The corresponding iterative program will not crash, but it
will run forever adding one to the Total variable

// Infinite iteration function

int Forever(int Num)
{
int Total = 0;
while (Num < 0)
Total = Total + 1;
return( Total );
}

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

RECURSION
 When two functions call each other recursively it is called
mutual recursion
 Function A calls function B, and function B calls function A

 Normally functions are defined before they are used

How can we do this for mutual recursion?
 The solution is to provide function headers
 These give the “signature” of the function (return type,
function name, and function parameters)
 Function headers are placed at the top of the program

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

RECURSION
#include <iostream
using namespace std;

// Function headers
These function headers tell
int Silly(int Num); the compiler what these
functions will look like, so it
int Magic(int Val);
can properly handle calls to
these functions in the code

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

RECURSION This debugging line will let us
see what recursive calls
// Function declaration occur when the program runs

int Silly(int Num)

{
cout << "calling silly " << Num << endl;
if (Num < 42)
return( Num + 13 );
else
return( Magic(Num*2) ); Here is the recursion call
}

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

RECURSION This debugging line will let us
see what recursive calls
// Function declaration occur when the program runs

int Magic(int Val)

{
cout << "calling magic " << Val << endl;
if (Val > 0)
return( Val % 17 );
else
return( Silly(Val-8) ); Here is the recursion call
}

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

RECURSION
// Main program
int main()
{
int Number;
cout << "Enter number: ";
cin >> Number;
cout << "Magic(" << Number << ") = " << Magic(Number) << endl;
cout << "Silly(" << Number << ") = " << Silly(Number) << endl;
return(0);
}

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

RECURSION
Sample program output:

Enter number: 49

calling magic 49
Magic(49) = 15

calling silly 49
calling magic 98
Silly(49) = 13

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

RECURSION
Sample program output:

Enter number: -10

calling magic -10

calling silly -18
Magic(-10) = -5

calling silly -10

Silly(-10) = 3

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

SUMMARY
 In this section we have focused on recursive functions
 We need to implement the recurrence relationship
 We need to implement the terminating conditions

 Sometimes the recursive function is smaller and easier to

understand than the iterative solution

 Sometimes the recursive function is much slower because

of the large number of function calls necessary

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

FUNCTIONS

PART 4
FUNCTION LIBRARIES
FUNCTION LIBRARIES
 Function libraries are collections of similar functions
grouped together in one file for ease of use
 By making and using libraries we can increase code reuse
and decrease development and debugging time

 To make use of the functions in a library we need to add

#include<library> at the top of our program
 This include file contains the function prototypes for all of
the functions in the library
 The compiler will automatically link in code for the
functions you have used with your program

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

FUNCTION LIBRARIES
 Here are some of the most commonly used libraries
#include <iostream> // I/O stream functions
#include <iomanip> // I/O formatting functions
#include <fstream> // File I/O stream functions
#include <cmath> // C based math functions
#include <cstdio> // C based I/O functions
#include <cstdlib> // C based library functions
#include <cctype> // C based character functions
#include <cstring> // C based string functions
#include <ctime> // C based timing functions

 See cplusplus.com for full documentation

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

CMATH FUNCTIONS
 The <cmath> library includes a wide range of
trigonometric functions and other functions you
remember fondly from math class
 double sin (double x);
 double cos (double x);
 double sqrt (double x);
 double log (double x);
 double pow (double base, double exponent);
…

 All of these functions have been implemented very

cleverly so they are fast and accurate

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

CMATH FUNCTIONS
#include <iostream>
#include <cmath>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
// Calculate and print sin and cos table
for (int Degrees = 0; Degrees <= 360; Degrees += 10)
{
double Radians = Degrees * M_PI / 180.0;
cout << Degrees << " " << cos(Radians) << " " << sin(Radians)<< endl;
}
return 0;
}

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

IOMANIP FUNCTIONS
 The <iomanip> library includes functions to help you
create well formatted program output
 setw(int n);
 setprecision(int n);
 setfill(char c);
…

 These functions are used together with “cout” to control

how the next value will be printed on the screen

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

IOMANIP FUNCTIONS
#include <iostream>
#include <iomanip>
#include <cmath>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
// Print header for table
cout << setw(8) << "Angle”
<< setw(8) << "Cos”
<< setw(8) << "Sin”;<< endl;

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

IOMANIP FUNCTIONS
// Calculate and print sin and cos table
for (int Degrees = 0; Degrees <= 360; Degrees += 10)
{
double Radians = Degrees * M_PI / 180.0;
cout << setw(8) << Degrees;
cout << setw(8) << setprecision(3) << cos(Radians);
cout << setw(8) << setprecision(3) << sin(Radians) << endl;
}
return 0;
}

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

SOFTWARE
ENGINEERING TIPS
 Start your program with "empty" function bodies
 Helps debug the main program and parameter passing

 Implement and test bodies of functions one at a time

 This way you are never far from a running program

 Print debugging messages inside each function

 To see which function is being called and its parameters

 Give functions and parameters meaningful names

 Make your code easier to read and understand

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

SOFTWARE
ENGINEERING TIPS
 Common mistakes when creating functions
 Function definition does not match function prototype
 Semicolon at end of function definition is not needed
 Infinite loop of recursive function calls

 Common mistakes when calling functions:

 Incorrect number or types of parameters
 Incorrect ordering of parameters
 Function return value not used properly

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming

SUMMARY
 In this section we have introduced C++ function libraries
and some example programs that use these libraries
 Learning how to use the built in libraries is an important
skill for all programmers to develop
 You do not want to waste your time to reinvent a function
that has already been written and debugged

 We have also discussed several software engineering tips

for creating and debugging programs using functions

CP 123: Introduction to Higher Level Programming