Normal Modes of Continuous

Systems

Free Vibrations of Stretched Strings

Waves all around us:

1.Light
2.Sound
3.RADAR
4.SONAR
5.Ultrasound
How does the sand scorpion detect its prey?
Classification of Waves:

a)Longitudinal waves

b)Transverse waves

(i)Traveling waves

(ii)Standing waves
Waves on a string:

Derivation of wave equation

Simulations:

https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/wave-on-a-
string/latest/wave-on-a-string_en.htm
l
 T
+d

 y
T x x+dx

Waves on a string:
Linear mass density = 
Both ends fixed
For a short segment of the string, the net force
acting on the segment is:
 Fy  T sin(   )  T sin 

Fx  T cos(   )  T cos 
Assume that the y displacements are very small, so
that the angles are also small.

Fy  T Fx  0
T  ( x)a y
y  y 2
tan   sec   2 x
2
x x
Since the angle is small, sec~ 1

 y 
2
T  2 x   ( x)a y
 x 
  y  y
2 2
 y 1  y
2 2
 
x 2
T t 2
x 2
v t
2 2

This is known as the “Wave Equation”.

Notice that it is a linear second order partial
differential equation.
The principle of superposition is a direct
consequence of the linearity of the equation.
Principle of superposition is based on the fact that,
If y1 and y2 are solutions of a linear equation, then
y1 + y2 is also a solution of that equation.
This is not true for non-linear equations.
Consider a non-linear equation
2
d y2
 2   ay  0
 dt 
If y1 and y2 are solutions.
y1 + y2 is not a solution.
Phenomena such as interference and diffraction
are based on the superposition principle
We now look for solutions of the wave equation,
which are stationary vibrations.
Therefore, we assume:

y ( x, t )  f ( x) cos t
  y
2
  f ( x) cos t
2

t 2

 y d f
2 2
 2 cos t
x 2
dx
Substituting these derivatives in the wave equation,
gives us:
d f 2
 2

2
 2 f
dx v
  x 
f ( x)  A sin  
 v 
The function automatically satisfies the boundary
condition at x = 0.
To satisfy the boundary condition at x = L

L Where n is any positive

 n integer
v
The permitted frequencies are:
1/ 2
nv n T 
vn    
2L 2L   

The total length of the string must exactly

accommodate an integral number of half-sine
curves.
2L
n 
n
The shape of the string in mode n is characterized
by:
 2x   nx 
f n ( x)  An sin    An sin  
 n   L 

 2x 
yn ( x, t )  An sin   cos nt


 n 
Forced Harmonic vibration of a stretched string:
The end of the string at x = L is kept fixed, but the
end at x = 0 is vibrated transversely at some
arbitrary angular frequency and with an amplitude
B.
We propose a steady state solution of the form:

y ( x, t )  f ( x) cos t
The boundary conditions are:

y (0, t )  B cos t y ( L, t )  0
 f ( x)  A sin( Kx   )
Substituting this in the wave equation, we get:

  x 
K f ( x)  A sin   
v  v 
From the boundary condition at x = L,

 L  L
sin     0    p
 v  v
From the boundary condition at x = 0, we get
B = A sin
B
A
 L 
sin  p  
 v 

For a given amplitude of the forced

displacement at the extreme end, the
response of the string as a whole will be very
large, if the driving frequency is close to one
of the natural frequencies.
Damping will limit the actual amplitude.
We build up a large force response with a
small driving amplitude by having the forcing
take place at a point which is close to being a
node of one of the natural frequencies.
Standing waves on a string:
A disturbance set up at one end of a string
(fixed at both ends) travels to the other end
and is reflected back.
The reflected wave superposes on the initial
wave giving rise to the standing wave.

 2x 
yn (t )  An sin   cos nt
 n 
  2x  1   nx   nx  
sin  cos nt  sin  nt   sin  nt 
 n  2  L   L 

Recall that L = n/2.

Therefore the above equation, can be re-
written as:
An   n  n L    n  n L  
y n ( x, t )  sin  x t    sin  x t  
2   L  n    L  n   
 An   2   2 
y n ( x, t ) 
2 sin   x  vt   sin   x  vt 
    

Concentrate on the first term:

we will show that it represents a wave
traveling in the forward direction.
At a particular time, y is a sinusoidal function
of x.
Let the same displacement be found at a
location x+x, at a time t + t

y ( x, t )  y ( x  x, t  t )
  2   2 
sin  x  vt   sin  x  x   vt  t 
     

x  vt  0
T
Therefore, our definition of

Is correct .
 

t t+t

x
You can verify that:

 2   2 
y  sin  x  vt  & y  sin  x  vt 
     
Satisfies the one-dimensional wave equation

 y 1  y
2 2

x 2
v t
2 2
In fact, any function of the form
f(x-vt) or f(x+vt)
Satisfies the wave equation
Superposition of waves:

 2   2 
y1  sin  x  vt  y2  sin  x  vt 
 1   2 
Convenient to discuss in terms of wave
number (reciprocal of the wavelength)
The superposed waveform at t = 0 is given by:

y  Asin( 2k1 x)  sin( 2k 2 x)

y  2 A cos[ (k1  k 2 ) x] sin[ (k1  k 2 ) x]

Dispersion: Phase and group velocities

A progressive wave is represented by:

 2 
y1  A sin x  vt   A sink1 x  1t 
 1 
Superpose another wave of a slightly
different wavelength:
 2 
y2  A sin  x  vt   A sin k2 x  2t 
 2 
 y  y1  y2  A sin k1 x  1t   A sin k 2 x  2t 

 k1  k 2 1  2   k1  k 2 1  2 
y  2 A cos x t  sin  x t
 2 2   2 2 

y  2 A cosxk  t sinkx  t 

The above expression for y can be
interpreted as a rapidly alternating wave of
short wavelength modulated in amplitude by
an envelope of long wave length
The speed with which the crest belonging
to the average wave vector k moves is
called phase velocity.
The velocity of the modulating envelope is
known as group velocity. Energy
propagation happens with this velocity.
  nx 
yn ( x, t )  An sin   cos (nt   )
 L 

At a particular instant in time, Energy = K. E


What is this instant of time? (n t   ) 
2
1
 dx (y 2 )
K. E. for a segment of string = 2

 nx 
y n ( x, t )  - n An sin   sin (nt   )
 L 
 2
1 1   nx  
K.E. =  dx (y )   dx  n An sin   
2

2 2   L 

 2 2 2  nx  
L
Total K. E. = 1
0 2  dx  n An sin  L   dx
1 2 L  n 
  n A n
2

2 n  2 
1 n T
 n2 An2 L n 
4 L 
 2 An2T 2
 n
4 L
 P.E. of the segment
Deformation of the segment
ds
dy
Due to tension T

dx ds-dx

x x+dx Work done in deformation

W  P.E.  T (ds  dx)

1
ds  (dx  dy )
2 2 2
 1
ds  (dx  dy )
2 2 2

2 1
 dy 
ds  dx(1    ) 2

 dx 
Small transverse dy
displacement  1
dx
2 1 2
 dy  1  dy 
ds  dx(1    ) 2 ds  dx    dx
 dx  2  dx 
 2
1  y 
P.E.  U  T   dx
2  x 
Optics:
Electromagnetic Waves:
Huygens-Fresnel Principle:
When a wave is propagating through a
medium, each point in the medium acts as
new source of spherical (circular) waves.
The Huygens’ principle can be used to explain
many of the observed phenomena concerning
waves.
1. Refraction:
Before we can apply Huygens’ principle, we
need to understand the construction of a
wavefront by this method.
What is a wavefront?
When a wave is propagating through a
medium, the locus of all points which have
the same phase is called a wavefront.
According to Huygens, any point in the
medium acts as a source of secondary
wavelets and the common tangent to the
wavelets originating from different points is
the wavefront
Huygens’ construction suffers from one
crucial drawback.
What’s that?
According to his construction, there should
be a backward propagating wave as well.
But we know there is no such wave.,
We modify the principle, to account for this,
and say that the secondary waves do not
have the same amplitude in all directions.
 S 

B P
O R

Effect at P due to the region near S is a

function f().
f() = 0 for 
Double-Slit Interference:

dsin

r2

r1
P
The disturbances arriving at P from the two
slits are different in amplitude for two
reasons:
1.The distances r1 and r2 are different and the
amplitude falls off with increasing distance
from the source.
2. The angles 1 and 2 are different and hence
according to Huygens’ construction, the
amplitude falls away with increasing obliquity
There is a phase difference between the
the two disturbances corresponding to the
time difference (r2 – r1)/v, where v is the wave
speed.
We shall concentrate on situations where the
distances r1 and r2 are large compared to the
distance d between the slits.
Therefore we can ignore the difference in amplitudes
between the slits.
This also means a scalar addition of electric fields is
sufficient
There exist loci, nodal lines, along which the
resultant disturbance is almost zero at all
times.
At any point P, the displacement as a function
of time is of the form:

 r1   r2 
y p (t )  Ao cos   t    Ao cos   t  
 v  v

  (r1  r2 )    
y p (t )  2 Ao cos t   cos r2  r1 
 2v   2v 
When we move from point to point, the
difference between r2 and r1 is more important
in determining the resultant displacement
than the sum.
A given nodal line is defined by:

 r2  r1  
 2n  1
 2
The nodal lines are thus a set of:
hyperbolas
Within the area between the nodal lines, one
can draw a second set of hyperbolas which
define lines of maximum displacement.
The condition for maxima to occur is:

r2  r1  n

r2  r1  d sin   n
The amplitude in an arbitrary direction is
given by:
 d sin  
A( )  2 Ao cos 
  
For optical wavelengths: 
 1
sin  
n

d
d
Furthermore, at a given distance D from the
slits, the spacing between successive
maxima is:
 D
d
Multiple-slit Interference (Diffraction Grating):
Array of N equally spaced slits.
Phase difference d between successive slits
is: 2
 d sin 

We have already considered superposition of
N SHMs.
The resultant amplitude is:
 Sin( N / 2)
A  Ao
sin( / 2)
 Intensity pattern in
100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
Spectrum of the Mercury vapour lamp.
Grating spectrometer
Separation of the
two yellow lines of
Sodium more
clearly seen in the
second order
spectrum.
Newton’s rings:
Differences with Young’s double slit
experiment:
•Amplitude division in Newton’s rings, while
it is wavefront division in Young’s double
slit.
•Condition for bright and dark fringe are
reversed in Newton’s rings when compared
to Young’s double slit experiment.
Experimental arrangement for Newton’s rings
Expression for radius of the rings
(R  t )  r  R
2 2
m
2

2
rm
rm2 = (2R - t) t
2t 
R

2
rm
m   rm  m R ,
2
m  0 ,1,2...
R

Condition for dark rings

Precautions:
•Make the cross wire tangential to the ring.
•Move the traveling microscope in the same
direction to avoid “backlash” error.
•Make sure the field of view is uniformly
illuminated.
•Adjust focusing of microscope (if required).
Newton’s rings
Diffraction:
Bending of waves around an
obstacle.
Feynman:
“No one has ever been able to define the difference
between interference and diffraction satisfactorily.
when there are only a few sources, say two,
interfering, then the result is usually called
interference, but if there is a large number of them, it
seems that the word diffraction is more often used”
64
The above image was made entirely using Rubik’s cubes (a total of 14160 cubes
were used). The students who achieved this were recreating a colour photograph.
As you maybe knowing, there are only 6 colours on a Rubik cube while a normal
colour photograph may have many more colours. This feat was achieved in a
record time of 7 hours by a group of students belonging to the Hyderabad campus
of Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani. Hats off to them!
65
66
67
Diffraction pattern of a circular disc (note the bright spot at the centre! –
it is in the middle of the geometrical shadow)

68
More examples:

1. Diffraction of Tsunami waves

 Why are we not blinded by Star Light?
http://dspace.rri.res.in/jspui/bitstream/2289/753/1/2000%20Resonanc
e%20V5%20p56.pdf

71
Diffraction by a single slit:

Consider secondary wavelets from

innumerable number of points within the slit.

 i
Ares  Ao 1  e  e i 2
e i 3

 .........

Sin( N / 2)
Ares  Ao
sin( / 2)
 2
N  a sin  and   0


Sin(a sin  /  )
Ares  NAo
a sin  / 
 Diffraction Pattern of Single slit
1

0.9 a= 1

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5
I

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
u
2
sin (ua / 2)
2
I a 2
(ua / 2)
Double slit Diffraction pattern:

Can be viewed as product of the diffraction

pattern of a single slit and the interference
pattern of a double slit.

Therefore, the intensity of the Double slit

diffraction pattern is:
2
 sin(ua / 2) 
I (u )  4a 
2 2
 cos (ud / 2)
 ua / 2 
Diffraction pattern of grating with finite slit
width:

Diffraction term Interference term

 Condition for Fraunhofer diffraction:

The first minimum of the diffraction envelope

occurs at: 
sin  m 
b
If the screen is at distance D the distance of
this minimum from the central maximum is:
D tan  m
Diffraction is dominant if D tan  m  b
b2
D 

If b = 0.1 mm and we use visible light (500 nm)
then the screen has to be at a distance much
greater than 10-8/5 x 10-7 ~ 2 m

For macroscopic objects (b ~ 1 m) D has to be

much greater than 2 x 105 km.
This is the reason diffraction effects are not
seen in daily life for light, but can be observed
for sound.