Unit 1 (Topic 10) .Edited

DC Ammeter:
DC Voltmeter
Extension of range using shunts and series multipliers for Voltmeters
and Ammeters
Range extension of ammeters & voltmeters can done by using
a shunt or series multiplier.
The main function of the multiplier is to limit the flow of current
through the voltmeter in such a way that the deflection of the pointer
should not exceed the full-scale deflection

 It is difficult in measuring high voltages with normal voltmeters, it is,
therefore, necessary to bring those high values to normal values that
can be measurable by voltmeters.

 This process is called the extension of range of voltmeter.
Extension of Range of Voltmeter Using Multiplier :
Multipliers are used for the range extension of voltmeters.
The multiplier is a non-inductive high-value resistance connected in series with the
instrument whose range is to be extended.
The combination is connected across the circuit whose voltage is to be measured.
Let,
Rm = Internal resistance of the meter
Rs = Resistance of multiplier
Im = Full-scale deflection current of meter

V = Voltage being measured
Vm = Full deflection voltage of the meter
From the above figure,
The multiplying factor of the multiplier is the ratio of extended voltage range to be
measured V to the actual sustainable voltage by the voltmeter V m.
 If the sustainable voltage drop of the meter V m = Im Rm.

Then multiplying factor m is,
Hence, to extend a voltmeter range for m times. The resistance of the multiplier
required is (m-1) × resistance of the meter.
Multirange Voltmeter :
To increase the range of the voltmeter a series resistor called a multiplier is connected
in series to limit the meter current.
The range of the voltmeter is the product of the multiplier resistance and the
maximum meter current (i.e., Rm × Im). So, to increase the range of voltmeter,
multiplier resistance has to be increased.
 Hence, multiple voltage ranges can be obtained by using individual multipliers as
shown below.
The range of voltmeter when switch is at position 1 is V 1 = Im(R1 + Rm)
 At position 2, V2 = Im(R2 + Rm)
 At position 3, V3 = Im(R3 + Rm) and so on.
 Since R1 < R2 < R3 < and so on. Therefore V1 < V2 < V3 < and so on. Hence, we
obtain different voltage ranges by using a multirange voltmeter.
Extension of Range of Ammeter using Shunts :
In measuring instrument, shunt refers to a low resistance
which is connected in parallel to the basic meter as shown
below.
It acts as a diverter, and the maximum percent of current
measured will be passed through it.
Let,
Im = Full deflection current of the basic meter
Ish = Current through shunt
Rm = Internal resistance of the basic meter
Rsh = Resistance of the shunt

I = Current being measured
m = Multiplying factor
As the shunt is connected in parallel to the basic meter, the voltage drops across
the shunt will be equal to that of a basic meter.
∴ Im Rm = Ish Rsh ...(1)
I = Im + Ish (From figure)
Ish = I - Im ...(2)
Substituting equation 2 in 1 we get,
The ratio of I and Im is called the multiplying factor m.
i.e., m = I/Im ...(4).
Substituting equation 4 in 3 we get,
The meter deflection θ is directly proportional to the meter current I m.
i.e., θ ∝ Im ∝ I
So, the meter deflection is directly proportional to the total current being
measured. Hence, by connecting a proper value of shunt and calibrating the
meter scale in terms of m × Im = I the range of an ammeter can be extended.
Electrostatic Voltmeter
Introduction :
Electrostatic voltmeters are based on the fact that an electric force
(attraction or repulsion) exists between charged plates or objects.
An electrostatic voltmeter is essentially an air condenser , one plate is fixed
while the other, which is coupled to the pointer, is free to rotate on jewelled
bearings.
Figure: Electrostatic Voltmeter
Working Principle :
When p.d. to be measured is applied across the plates, the electric force
between the plates gives rise to a deflecting torque.
Under the action of deflecting torque, the movable plate moves and causes
the deflection of the pointer to indicate the voltage being measured. This is
the basic electrostatic voltmeter working principle.
 Such instruments can be used to measure direct as well as alternating
voltages.
The fundamental concept behind the electrostatic voltmeter revolves around
Coulomb’s Law. The force of attraction or repulsion between two charges is
directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between them. This voltmeter measures voltage by
comparing this electrostatic force against a known mechanical force.
Working principle
• The voltmeter consists of two plates: one fixed and the
other movable. When a voltage (potential difference) is
applied across these plates, an electrostatic force is
generated.
• This force tends to move the movable plate towards the
fixed plate. However, the movable plate is attached to a
spring. This spring exerts a mechanical force that resists the
movement of the movable plate.
• When these two forces — the electrostatic force and the
mechanical spring force — balance each other, the
movable plate comes to a rest position. The deflection of
the movable plate from its original position is a measure of
the applied voltage.
In Electrostatic Voltmeters fields, the attractive force between the electrodes of a
parallel plate capacitor is given by
where,
V = applied voltage between plates,
C = capacitance between the plates,
A = area of cross-section of the plates,
d = diameter of plates
s = separation between the plates,
ε0 = permittivity of the medium (air or free space), and
Ws = work done in displacing a plate

When one of the electrodes is free to move, the force on the plate can be measured
by controlling it by a spring or balancing it with a counter weight.
For high voltage measurements, a small displacement of one of the electrodes by a
fraction of a millimeter to a few millimeters is usually sufficient for voltage
measurements.
As the force is proportional to the square of the applied voltage, the measurement
can be made for a.c. or d.c. voltages.
Features of Electrostatic Voltmeters
• High Accuracy: These voltmeters provide high-
accuracy readings because they do not depend
on the value of the magnetic field, temperature,
or frequency, factors that can affect the accuracy
of other types of voltmeters.
• No Power Consumption: Since electrostatic
voltmeters do not draw any current, they do not
consume power from the circuit they are
measuring.
Applications of Electrostatic Voltmeters
Given their distinctive attributes, electrostatic voltmeters find

extensive application in various domains:
•High Voltage Systems: Due to their high input impedance
and no power draw, electrostatic voltmeters are particularly
useful in high voltage systems where other types of
voltmeters could potentially cause distortion.
•Electronics Industry: They are extensively used in the
electronics industry for monitoring and controlling
electrostatic charge in manufacturing environments.
•Laboratory Applications: Owing to their high accuracy,
electrostatic voltmeters are a preferred choice for laboratory
applications, particularly in physics and electronics labs.
Limitations and Precautions
There are a few limitations and precautions that users must be aware
of:
•Sensitivity to External Interference: Electrostatic voltmeters can be
sensitive to external electromagnetic interference or EMI. Therefore,
they need to be used in an environment free of significant EMI.
•Breakdown Voltage: If the applied voltage exceeds the breakdown
voltage of the air (or the specific dielectric used) between the two
plates, a discharge may occur, damaging the device. Hence, care must
be taken not to exceed the recommended voltage limit.
•Effect of Humidity: High humidity can decrease the insulating
property of the air gap between the plates, potentially affecting the
reading or causing a breakdown. Therefore, it’s crucial to use these
devices in controlled environments.
Types of Electrostatic Voltmeters
There are three types of electrostatic voltmeters viz. :
a) Attracted disc type — usual range from 500 V to 500 kV
b) Quadrant type — usual range from 250 V to 10 kV
c) Multicellular type — usual range from 30 V in 300 V
Two things are worth noting about electrostatic voltmeters.
a) First, the deflecting torque is very small for low voltages. For this reason,
they are not very sensitive to measure small voltages.
b) Secondly, the instrument is only available for the measurement of p.d., that
is to say as voltmeter. It cannot be used as an ammeter because when it is

used as an ammeter, there will be a few millivolts voltage across the
instrument. This extremely small p.d. is unsufficent to produce any
deflecting torque.

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DC Ammeter:

should not exceed the full-scale deflection

can be measurable by voltmeters.

Im = Full-scale deflection current of meter

 If the sustainable voltage drop of the meter V m = Im Rm.

 At position 2, V2 = Im(R2 + Rm)

 At position 3, V3 = Im(R3 + Rm) and so on.

Ish = Current through shunt

Rm = Internal resistance of the basic meter

Rsh = Resistance of the shunt

i.e., m = I/Im ...(4).

Substituting equation 4 in 3 we get,

The meter deflection θ is directly proportional to the meter current I m.

Ws = work done in displacing a plate

Given their distinctive attributes, electrostatic voltmeters find

is to say as voltmeter. It cannot be used as an ammeter because when it is

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