MECHANICS OF MACHINE TEST 1: 30min.

1) Define Mechanics of Machine:

a) Mechanics of machine of machine is bub-divided in to two, name
and define them
b) Define the following: i) Kinetics, ii) Statics, iii) Frame, iv)
Mechanism, v) Machine vi) Joint vii) Resistant Body viii)
Element
c) List seven types of link and how does it applicable
2) Differentiate between Driver and follower.
d) State grashof’s Law
e) With the aid of diagram explain the reciprocating steam engine
f) Give three major characteristic of link,
 FRICTION
Friction is seen as the force that opposes the motion of an object. This
is related to the surface roughness of two bodies acting on each other.
To stop a moving object, a force must act in the opposite direction to
the direction of motion. Friction is not a fundamental force, like
gravity or electromagnetism. Instead, scientists believe it is as a result
of the electromagnetic attraction between charged particles in two
touching surfaces.

For instance, if you push your book across your desk, the book will
move. The force of the push moves the book. As the book slides across
the desk, it slows down and stops moving. The force that opposes the
motion of an object is called friction.
 SURFACE CONTACT
At an interface between two objects, the
surfaces may appear to be smooth. However
on a microscopic scale the surfaces are pitted
and jagged. When another similar surface is
in contact with it, the irregularities and peaks
interlock. Surface roughness showing irregularities (friction)

Friction depends partly on the smoothness of the contacting surfaces, a

greater force being needed to move two surfaces past one another, if
they are rough than if they are smooth. However, friction decreases
with smoothness only to a degree; friction actually increases between
two extremely smooth surfaces because of increased attractive
electrostatic forces between their atoms.
Friction does not depend on the amount of surface area in contact
between the moving bodies or (within certain limits) on the relative
speed of the bodies.

It does, however, depend on the magnitude of the forces holding the

bodies together.

When a body is moving over an horizontal surface, it presses down

against the surface with a force equal to its weight, i.e, the pull of the
gravity upon it; an increase in the weight of the body causes an
increase in the amount of resistance offered to the relative motion of
the surfaces in contact.
 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE FRICTION
The following factors affects friction: -
a) The roughness of the surfaces since a rough surface produces greater friction
compared to a smooth surface

b) Friction also depends on the weight of an object.

c) The normal reaction between the surfaces (i.e. at right angle).

d) The kind of materials in contact.

e) No lubricant or the amount of lubricant that is applied between the contact

bodies.

f) Fluid friction or viscosity of the oil which has to be overcome.

APPLICATIONS, ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF FRICTION
In some applications, a low coefficient of friction is desirable, for example, in
bearings, pistons moving within cylinders, on ski runs, and so on. However, for
such applications as force being transmitted by belt drives and braking systems, a
high value of coefficient is necessary.
Advantage of Friction

The advantages of friction are as follows:

1. Almost all fastening devices rely on frictional forces to keep them in place or
secured. Examples screws, nails, nuts, clips and clamps.
2. Satisfactory operation of brakes and clutches rely on the present of frictional
force. Brakes and clutches cannot function without friction.
3. Frictional force helps to support ladder against the wall and it also help during
the piling up of objects.
4. Friction helps us to write on the paper or chalk board.
5. In the absence of frictional force, most acceleration along horizontal surfaces
are impossible; for example, a person’s shoes just slip when walking is
attempted, so friction enable us to walk freely and the tyres of a car just rotate
with no forward motion of the car being experienced.
Disadvantages of Frictional Forces

The disadvantages of friction are as follows:

1. Friction produces a lot of heat in various parts of the machinery and this leads
to energy wastage in the bearings associated with shafts, axles and gears due to
heat being generated.
2. Wear is caused by friction, for example, in shoes, brake lining materials and
bearings.
3. Energy is wasted when motion through air occurs (it is much easier to cycle
with the wind rather than against it).
4. Because friction is an opposing force, more energy is needed to overcome it.
5. Lot of effort and money goes in, by using techniques like greasing and oiling
 TYPES OF FRICTION
(1)Static Friction: it is the type of friction experienced by a body when at rest.
Static frictional forces from the interlocking of the irregularities of two surfaces
will increase to prevent any relative motion up until some limit, where motion
occurs.
 It is that threshold of motion which is characterized by the coefficient of static
friction.
 The coefficient of static friction is typically larger than the coefficient of
kinetic friction
Kinetic Friction: it is the type of friction experience by a body that is in motion.
The kinetic friction can also be known as Dynamic friction.
It is always less than the static friction. When two surfaces are moving with
respect to one another, the frictional resistance is almost constant over a wide
range of low speeds, and in the standard model of the frictional.
Force is described by the relationship shown in figure 5.3. This coefficient is
typically less than the coefficient of static friction, reflecting the common
experience that it is easier to keep something in motion across an horizontal
surface than to start it motion from rest.
 TYPES OF KINETIC OR DYNAMIC FRICTION
It is of the following three types:
(a) Sliding Friction: this is the type of friction experience by a body that is
sliding over another.
(b) Rolling Friction: it is the type of friction experienced between the surfaces
which has balls or rollers in between them.
A rolling wheel requires a certain amount of friction so that the point of contact
of the wheel with the surface will not slip.
The amount of traction which can be obtained for an auto tyre which can be
determined by the coefficient of static friction between the tyre and the road.
If the wheel is locked and sliding, the force of friction is determined by the
coefficient of kinetic friction and is usually significantly less.
Assuming that a wheel is rolling without slipping, the surface friction does no
work against the motion of the wheel and no energy is lost at that point.
(c) Pivot Friction: is the type of friction, experienced by a body, due to the motion
of rotation as in the case of foot step bearings.

Other Types of Friction

Friction may further be categories into two types:
1. Friction Between Lubricated Surfaces: The friction experience between two
dry and unlubricated surfaces in contact is known as dry or solid friction. It is
due to the surface roughness. Dry friction is also known as Coulomb friction.
Dry friction occurs when the non-lubricated surfaces of two solids are in
contact under a condition of sliding or a tendency to slide.
The dry or solid friction includes the sliding and rolling friction.

a) Rolling friction: A rolling wheel requires a certain amount of friction so that

the point of contact of the wheel with the surface will not slip. The amount of
traction which can be obtained for an auto tyre is determined by the coefficient of
Dry friction: Dry friction is also known as Coulomb friction. Dry friction occurs
when the non-lubricated surfaces of two solids are in contact under a condition of
sliding or a tendency to slide.
2. Friction between unlubricated surfaces: When lubricant (i.e. oil or grease) is
applied between two surfaces in contact, then the friction may be classified into the
following two types depending on the thickness of layer of the lubricant as follows :
a) Boundary friction (or greasy or non-viscous friction): It is the friction,
experienced between the rubbing surfaces, when the surfaces have a very thin layer
of lubricant. The thickness of this very thin layer is of the molecular dimension.

b) Fluid friction (or film or viscous friction): It is the friction, experienced

between the rubbing surfaces, when the surfaces have a thick layer of lubricant. In
this case, the actual surfaces do not come in contact and thus do not rub against each
other.
Laws of Fluid Friction
They following are they laws of fluid friction:
1. The force of friction is almost independent of the load
2. The force of friction reduces with the increase of the temperature of the lubricant.
3. The force of friction is independent of the substances of the bearing surfaces.
4. The force of friction is different for different lubricants.

Laws of Static Friction

They following are they laws of static friction:
1. The force of friction always acts in a direction, opposite to that in which the body tends to
move.
2. The magnitude of the force of friction is exactly equal to the force, which tends the body to
move or depends on the magnitude of the applied force.
3. The magnitude of the limiting friction (F) bears a constant ratio to the normal reaction (RN)
between the two surfaces.
4. The force of friction is independent of the area of the contact, between the two surfaces.
5. The force of friction depends upon the roughness of the surfaces.
Laws of Kinetic or Dynamic Friction

They following are they laws of kinetic friction:

1. The force of friction always acts in a direction, opposite to that in which the body is
moving.
2. It is independent of the surface of contact.
3. The coefficient of kinetic friction is less than the coefficient of static friction.
4. It is independent of the magnitude of applied force.
5. The magnitude of the kinetic friction bears a constant ratio to the normal reaction between
the two surfaces. But this ratio is slightly less than that in case of limiting friction.
6. The force of friction is independent of the area of the contact surface for a given normal
load.
7. The force of friction is independent of the velocity of sliding of one body relative to the
other.
8. The coefficient depends on the nature of materials and temperature of the surface.
9. For moderate speeds, the force of friction remains constant. But it decreases slightly with
the increase in the speed.
10.The force of friction is directly proportional to the normal load between the surfaces.
Normal Force ‘’N’’
Frictional resistance forces are typically proportional to the force which presses the
surfaces together. This force which will affect frictional resistance is the component
of applied force which acts perpendicular or normal to the surfaces which are in
contact and is typically referred to as the normal force or reaction (N or RN).
For an object If a force acts If a force pulls If a force pulls
sitting on a flat downward on the upward on the upward on the
surface, the normal object, the normal object, the object, the normal
force is just its force is greater than normal force is force is less than
weight. the weight. less than the the weight.
N = mg N=mg + sin θ weight. N=mg - sin θ
N=mg - sin θ

The above cases are the commonly encountered situations for objects at rest or in
straight line motion. For curved motion, there are cases like a car on a banked curve
where the normal force is determined by the dynamics of the situation. In that case,
the normal force depends upon the speed of the car as well as the angle of the bank.
Limiting Friction and Friction Plot: In making distinction between static and
kinetic coefficients of friction, we are dealing with an aspect of "real world"
common experience with a phenomenon which cannot be simply characterized.

The difference between static and kinetic coefficients obtained in simple

experiments like wooden blocks sliding on wooden inclines roughly follows the
model depicted in the friction plot from which the illustration in figure 5.5 is taken
into consideration.
The differences at the point of limiting friction may arise from irregularities, surface
contaminants, etc. which defy precise description. When such experiments are
carried out with smooth metal blocks which are carefully cleaned, the difference
between static and kinetic coefficients tends to disappear. This plot illustrates the
standard model of friction.
Limiting Angle of Friction
Consider that a body A of weight (W) resting on an horizontal plane B, as shown in
figure 5.7. If an horizontal force P is applied to the body, no relative motion will
take place until the applied force P is equal or greater than the force of friction F,
acting opposite the direction of the motion. The magnitude of this force of friction
is,
F = µ.W (N) = µ.RN, where RN = N is the normal reaction.
In the limiting case, when the motion just begins,
the body will be in equilibrium under the action of
the following three forces:-
•Weight of the body (W)
•Applied horizontal force (P)
•Reaction (R) between the body A and the plane B.
The reaction R must, therefore be equal and opposite to the resultant of W and P
will inclined at an angle to the normal reaction RN. This angle is known as the
limiting angle of friction. It may be defined as the angle which the resultant
reaction R makes with the normal reaction RN.
From Figure below, tan = = = µ

Equation of Friction
Frictional resistance to the relative motion of two solid objects is usually
proportional to the force which presses the surfaces together as well as the
roughness of the surfaces. Since it is the force perpendicular or "normal" to the
surfaces which affects the frictional resistance, this force is typically called the "
normal force or reaction" and designated by N or RN. The frictional resistance
force may then be written. = µR N
Coefficient of Friction
The coefficient of friction is a measure of the amount of friction existing between
two surfaces which is the ratio of the frictional resistance force to the
normal reaction which presses the surfaces together.

A low value of coefficient of friction indicates that the force required for sliding
to occur is less than the force required when the coefficient of friction is high.
5.3

Transposing, will gives: Frictional force = µ × Normal force

Therefore whereby µ = Coefficient of friction
= Coefficient of Kinetic friction
= Coefficient of Static friction
ANGLE OF REPOSE
Consider a body A of weight (W) is resting
on an inclined plane B, as shown in Figure
5.8. If the angle of inclination α of the plane
to the horizontal is such that the body begins
to move down the plane, then the angle α is
called the angle of repose. A little
consideration will show that the body will
begin to move down the plane when the
angle of inclination of the plane is equal to
the angle of friction. (i.e. α = ).
This may be proved as follows:
The weight of the body (W) can be Internal friction
resolved into two components, Internal friction occurs in all solid
1. Wsinα, is parallel to plane B. This materials which are subjected to cyclic
component tends to slide the body loading. For highly elastic materials the
down the plane. recovery from deformation occurs with
2. Wcosα, is perpendicular to plane B. very little loss of energy due to internal
This component is balanced by the friction. For solid materials which have
normal reaction (RN) of the body A low limits of elasticity and which
and the plane B. undergo appreciable plastic
The body will only begin to move deformation during loading, a
down the plane, when considerable amount of internal friction
Wsinα = F = µ.RN = µ.Wcos α may go with this deformation. The
mechanism of internal friction is
(∵RN = Wcosα) associated with the action of shear
∴ tanα = µ = tan or α= deformation.
How to Determine the Minimum Force Required to Slide a Body on a
Rough Horizontal plane Resolving the horizontal forces

Pcosθ = F

But, F =
µ.RN
Substituting the value of RN
from equation (5.6) in equation 5.7
Pcosθ = tan (W - Psinθ)
Pcosθ = µ(W - P sin θ)
With the notations I figure 5
Recalling equation 5.5
Resolving the vertical forces. Pcosθ = (W- Psinθ)
RN + Psinθ = W Pcosθ.cos = Wsin – Psinθ.sin
µ = tan
RN = W – Psin θ 5.6 Pcos θ.cos + Psinθ.sin = Wsin
Pcos(θ – ) = Wsin …[∵cosθ.cos +
sinθ.sin = cos(θ-)]
 For P to be minimum, cos (θ – ) should be maximum, i.e.
cos (θ – ) = 1 or θ – = 0o or θ=
In other words, the effort P will be minimum, if its inclination with the horizontal
is equal to the angle of friction.
∴ Pmin = W sin θ 5.9
Example 5.1
A body resting on a rough horizontal plane required a pull of 180N inclined at 30‫ﹾ‬
to the plane just to move it. It was found that a pull of 220N inclined at 30‫ ﹾ‬to the
plane just move the body. Determine the weight of the body and the coefficient
of friction.
Solution:
With the notation in figure 5.10, μ = Coefficient of friction
F = Force of friction
Considering a pull of 180N
Resolving the horizontal forces; Resolving the horizontal forces

F = 180cos 300.866 180 = ‫ﹾ‬ F=

220cos 30220 = ‫ ﹾ‬x 0.866
F = 156N
……. 5.10 F = 190.5N

Resolving the vertical forces 5.12

Resolving the vertical forces
R = W ‒ 180sin 30‫ = ﹾ‬W ‒ 180
190.5 = μ(W + 110) ……. 5.13

Solving equation 5.11 and 5.13

simultaneously,

μ= =
0.1725

Substituting μ
in equation …5.11

156 = 0.1725(W ‒ 90)

Friction of a Body Lying on a Rough Inclined Plane
Considering a weight (W) that is lying on a plane inclined at an angle α with the
horizontal plane, as shown in Figures a and b.
A little consideration will show that if the inclination of the plane, with the
horizontal, is less than the angle of friction, the body will be in equilibrium as
shown in Figure a. If in this condition, the body is required to be moved upwards
and downwards, a corresponding force is required for the same.
If the inclination of the plane is more than the angle of friction, the body will
move down and an upward force (P) will be required to resist the body from
moving down the plane as shown in Figure b.
Lets now analyze the various forces which may act on a
body when it slides either up or down an inclined plane.
Case-1, Considering the motion of the body up the plane
Let W = Weight of the body
α = Angle of inclination of the plane to the
horizontal, = Limiting angle of friction for
the contact surfaces, P = Effort applied in a
given direction in order to cause the body to slide with
uniform velocity parallel to the plane, considering friction,
P0 = Effort required to move the body up the plane neglecting
friction, θ = Angle which the line of action of P makes
with the weight of the body W,
µ = Coefficient of friction between the surfaces of the plane and the body,
RN = Normal reaction

R = Resultant reaction.
When friction is neglected, the body is in equilibrium under the action of the
three forces, i.e. P0­, W and RN, as shown in Figure 5.13(a).The triangle of forces is
shown in Figure 5. 13(b).
Now applying sine rule for these three concurrent forces,
When friction is taken into account, frictional force F = µ.RN which acts in the
opposite direction to the motion of the body, as shown in Figure a. The resultant
reaction R between the plane and the body is inclined at angle with the normal
reaction RN. The triangle of forces is shown in Figure b.
Now applying sine rule,
5.15
: When the effort applied is horizontal, then θ = 900.
In such case, equations 5.14 and 5.15 may be written as
5.16
And
5.17
Note: When the effort applied is parallel to the plane, then θ = 900 + α.
In this case, equations 5.14 and 5.15 may be written as:
5.18

5.19
5.20
Case-2, Considering the motion of a body down the plane

Neglecting friction, the effort required for the motion down the plane will be the
same for the motion up the plane, i.e.
5.21
When friction is taken into account, the force of friction F = µ.RN will be acting
up the plane and the resultant reaction R will make an angle with RN towards its
right as shown in Figure 5.15(a). The triangle of forces is shown in Figure
5.15(b). Now from sine rule,
When P is applied horizontally, then θ = 900. In this case, equations 5.22 may be written as:
5.23
Note: When P is applied parallel to the plane, then θ = 900 + α.
In this case, equation 5.22 may be written as:
Friction on Square Thread
Square thread is a type of a screw thread which is always used in devices like screw
jacks, vice screw etc. considering a screw jack in lifting heavy load by applying a
comparatively smaller effort at its handle. The principles on which a screw jack
works is similar to that of an incline plane. Figure shows a common form
of a screw jack, which consists
of a square threaded rod which
fits into the inner threads of the
nut. The load to be raised or
lowered, it is placed on the
head of the square which is
rotated by the application of an
effort at the end of the lever for
lifting or lowering the load.
Torque Required to Lifts a Load by a Screw Jack

Considering one complete turn of a screw thread, imagined to be unwound, from

the body of the screw and developed, it will form an inclined plane as shown in
figure
Where, considered as horizontal force.
Since the load is being
lifted, therefore the force of friction (F = μ.RN) will
Pitch of the screw = P be acting downward.
Resolving the forces along the plane,

Pcosα = Wsinα + F
Mean diameter of the screw = d
= W sin α + μ.RN
Helix angle = 5.26
α Resolving forces perpendicular to the plane,
RN = Psinα +
Wcosα
Effort applied at the 5.27
circumference of the screw to lift the Substituting RN in equation 5.26
load = Pcosα = Wsinα + μ(Psinα + Wcosα)
Load to be lifted = W Pcosα = Wsinα + μPsin α + μWcosα
Pcosα ‒ μPsinα = Wsinα + μWcosα
P(cosα ‒ μsinα) = W(sinα + μcosα)
Coefficient
Multiplying the numerator and the denominator by cos
P=W =W
P = Wtan(α ‒ ) 5.30
Therefore, the torque required to overcomes friction between the screw and the nut is,

T1 = P = Wtan() 5.31
But, when the axial load is been taken up by a thrust collar or a flat surface as shown
in figure 5.16(b), so that, the load does not rotate with the screw.

Therefore, the torque required to overcome friction at the collar would now be,
= 5.32
Where, Mean radius of the collar = R =
The coefficient of the friction for the collar while R1 and R2 are the outside and the
inside radii of the collar. =
Then the total torque required to overcome friction or to rotate the screw will be,
T = T1 T2 = P .W.R 5.33
If an effort is applied at the end of the lever, with length (L), then the total torque
required to overcome friction would be equal to the torque applied at the end of the
lever, which will give,
T = P = P1.L
5.34
And when the normal diameter (do) and the core diameter (dc) of the screw thread
are given, then the mean diameter of the screw is,
d = d 0 = d 0 = dc 5.35
Since, mechanical advantage is the ratio of load lifted to the effort applied at the end
of the lever, therefore, mechanical advantage is
M.A = () 5.36
Or M.A = =