UNIT-4

COMPRESSORS
 INTRODUCTION
 In general compressors, fans, and turbines are identified as turbomachines
 Turbomachines are often referred to as rotor dynamic devices that transfer energy to or from a working fluid
through the forces generated by a rotor.
 For compressors or fans, energy is transferred from the rotor to the fluid. The reverse occurs in turbines,
which deliver shaft power in exchange of thermal energy taken from the working fluid.
 Compressors are classified as either intermittent flow or continuous flow. Intermittent-flow compressors
are positive-displacement ones. They are classified as either reciprocating or rotary types. Such positive-
displacement compressors achieve their pressure rise by trapping fluid in a confined space and transporting it
to the region of higher pressure. Continuous-flow compressors are classified as either ejectors or dynamic
compressors.
 Dynamic compressors are further classified as radial flow, mixed flow, or axial flow. In radial-flow
compressors outlet air flows in a plane perpendicular to the rotation axis, while in axial compressors outlet
flow is mainly parallel to the axis of rotation. Finally, in the case of mixed-flow compressors, outlet flow is
partly radial and partly axial.
 Dynamic compressors are also very similar to propellers and propfans. In both, energy is transferred from the
blades to the working fluid. However, they differ in the influenced fluid quantity.
 Dynamic compressors accommodate a finite quantity of working fluid that flows steadily in an annular duct
comprising a hub and casing. Consequently, it is defined as an enclosed machine. In contrast, propellers and
propfans influence an unbounded quantity of air—in other words, they are turbomachines without shrouds or
annulus walls (or casing) near the tip. Thus these machines are defined as extended turbomachines.
Classification of compressors
 Dynamic compressors work by conversion of the velocity to pressure in a continuous flow. They are efficient,
compact and handle vast quantities of working fluid.
 Considering air as the working fluid at 1.013 bar and 288 K, the inlet flow is typically 150 kg/s per square
meter of inlet area at Mach 0.4 . The intake diameters of the various types range from 0.1 m to 2.44 m . The
range of mass flow varies from about 1.2 to 700 kg/s. The isentropic efficiency ranges typically from 0.7 to
0.9.
 Mixed-flow compressors are rarely used in aeroengines or gas turbines.
 Centrifugal compressors and radial-inflow turbines are identified as radial turbomachines. Radial
turbomachines have a surprisingly long history, and predate axial-flow turbomachines, both compressors
and turbines.
 The most efficient turbomachines available to the early gas-turbine engineers were the centrifugal
compressors and axial turbines.
 Through the development of aeroengines, axial compressors have nearly replaced the centrifugal
compressors. Thus centrifugal compressors are found in small turbofan engines and small turboprop/
turboshaft engines and the famous engine manufactured by Pratt and Whitney of Canada.
 Other applications for the centrifugal compressors are aircraft-cabin air conditioning and the Multi Purpose
Small Power Units.
 In few gas-turbine engines, a centrifugal compressor is used for the final stage of compression downstream
of multistage of axial compressor. This arrangement, called an axial-centrifugal compressor, is to be
found, for example, in the General Electric T700 engine, the very popular PT6 Pratt & Whitney engine, and
the T53 Lycoming engine.
 Centrifugal compressors in aeroengines provide small-to-moderate air flows (up to nearly 50 kg/s).
They have either single or double stages (sometimes identified as impellers in tandem). The pressure
ratio per stage ranges from 4:1 to 8:1, while for double (two) stages in series, a pressure ratio of 15:1
is found in Pratt & Whitney PW100.
 Centrifugal compressors are used in many industrial applications, such as refineries, chemical and
petrochemical plants, natural gas processing and transmission plants, very large-scale refrigeration,
and iron and steel mills. These centrifugal compressors may have single or multiple stages (up to
five) and can operate at very high inlet pressures.
 Centrifugal compressors have the following advantages: lightweight, low cost, rigidity, high-pressure
ratio per stage, easily made in relatively small sizes thus suitable for handling small volume flows,
simplicity, better resistance to foreign object damage (FOD), less susceptibility to loss of performance
by build up of deposits on the blade surfaces, and the ability to operate over a wider range of mass
flow at a particular speed.
 The disadvantages of the centrifugal compressor are that it is generally less efficient than an axial
compressor (by perhaps 4%–5%) and it has a large cross-section compared to the cross-section of
the inlet flow.
Layout of a typical centrifugal
compressor
 Layout of Compressor
 Illustrates a typical centrifugal compressor. Nomenclature for a single-sided compressor with
channel-types diffuser is given here.

 Generally, a centrifugal compressor is so called because the flow through the compressor is turned
perpendicular to the axis of rotation. This type of compressors is composed of three main
elements: the rotating part or impeller, the stationary part or stator, and a manifold or a
collector (denoted by scroll or volute). The impeller has several blades referred to as vanes.

 The diffuser may have vanes or may be vaneless. An important part upstream of the impeller is the
inducer duct. The nature of flow through the impeller is strongly dependent upon the duct
arrangement upstream. This could be a simple straight duct, a curved inlet duct, a curved return
passage of a multi-stage compressor, or the final stage of an axial compressor. These alternative
configurations can lead to distorted flow conditions at the impeller inlet, which in turn will lead to an
overall deterioration of the compressor’s performance.
 Impeller
 The impeller scoops in the working fluid (air/gas). Air is drawn at the center or eye of the impeller, then accelerated
through the fast spinning speed of the impeller and finally thrown out at the tip. The forces exerted on the air are
centripetal.
 At the eye (inlet), the vanes are curved to induce the flow: this axial portion is called the inducer or known as the
rotating guide vanes and may be integral with or made separately from the main impeller.
 The divergence (increasing cross-sectional area) of these passages diffuses (slows) the flow to a lower relative
velocity and higher static pressure.
 The impeller is a complicated diffuser compared with the conventional straight conical diffuser as the passage is
doubly curved first in the axial plane and then in the radial plane
 The impeller vanes are aligned radially, but may be curved near the tip, having forward or backward
configurations. The impeller may have double sides (sometimes denoted double entry) as shown in Figure to pass
the maximum flow rate relative to its diameter and to balance the stresses of single-sided impeller.
 The vanes are cast, forged, or machined integrally with the impeller hub. The hub is the curved surface of
revolution extending from the eye root to the outlet.
 The number of vanes is usually a prime number, typically from 19 to 37, to avoid vibration problems. Half vanes
(splitter blades) are sometimes used toward the tip to improve the flow pattern where the full vanes are widely
spaced (denoted K).
 The outer curve of the vanes is sealed by the shroud, which may be part of the stationary structure or may rotate
with the rotor.
 Typical impeller proportions are that the eye root diameter is about half the eye tip diameter and the tip (outlet)
diameter is nearly twice the eye tip diameter.
 Double-sided centrifugal compressor
Impeller shape.
 The impeller material is often aluminum, with titanium or steel for smaller, high-duty machines.
 To conclude this part, it is worthy mentioning that the part of the compression process achieved in the impeller is caused by
moving the fluid outward in a centrifugal force field produced by the rotation of the impeller.
 This part of pressure rise differs from the pressure rise in axial flow compressor rotors and stators; instead of arising from
the exchange of kinetic energy for thermal energy in a diffusion process, it arises from the change in potential energy of the
fluid in the centrifugal force field of the rotor. It is therefore less limited by the problems of boundary layer growth and
separation in adverse pressure gradients.
 Diffuser
 The impeller blades sling the air radially outward where it is once again collected (at higher pressure) before it enters the
diffuser.
 The diffuser represents a part of the fixed structure of the compressor. It discharges air from the compressor impeller with
a high absolute velocity and the role of diffusion is to reduce the kinetic energy, thereby increasing the static pressure. The
diffuser is either a vaneless passage or a vaneless passage followed by a vaned section.
 The vaned diffuser represents a large group including the vanes together with the cascade, channel, and pipe types. All
diffusers have an initial vaneless gap outboard of the impeller in which the flow settles.
 The vaneless diffuser is bulky and can be inefficient relative to the other types.
 The cascade may involve one, two, or three rows of vanes, with performance similar to that of axial cascades.
 Vaned diffusers may use curved or straight vanes, having a longer path length than the cascade diffuser. Vaned diffusers
may be made variable, the vanes pivoting about an axis, to accommodate different incident flow angles through the speed
range.
 Vaneless, cascade, and vaned diffusers collect the flow in a one-volute-type collector, which is suitable for industrial
applications. Channel and pipe diffusers are suitable for aeroengines and gas turbines.

Different types of diffuser.

(a) Vaneless
(b) cascade (2) rows
(c) vaned diffuser and
(d) pipe diffuser.
 The channel and pipe diffusers collect the flow in separate passages, sometimes with corner vanes at their outlet. The
passage diverges slowly, the pipe consisting of a conical hole and the channel type being rectangular in section with one pair
of opposed walls diverging at 10°–11°, the others being parallel.
 The pipe and channel diffusers may feed separate combustors or may merge downstream. Recently, it had been shown that
the pipe-type diffuser (a diffuser comprising channel of circular cross section) is more efficient than the conventional type
with rectangular channels. The passages are formed by drilling holes tangentially through a ring surrounding the impeller,
and after the throat the passages are conical. Overall isentropic efficiencies of over 85% are claimed for compressors using
this new pipe diffuser.
Scroll or Manifold
 The final element of centrifugal compressors is either a manifold or a scroll. Centrifugal compressors with manifolds are
used when the compressor is a part of a gas generator—in either a gas turbine or an aeroengine—and thus the
compressor is followed by a combustion chamber.
 In this case, the diffuser is bolted to the manifold, and often the entire assembly is referred to as the diffuser. In case of
industrial applications for the oil and gas industry (up-, mid-, and downstream), chemical industries and petrochemicals,
iron and steel mining, and the paper industry, the working fluid is collected in a scroll or volute.
 The working fluid leaving the stators is collected in a spiral casing surrounding the diffuser called a volute or scroll. The area
of the cross-section of the volute increases along the flow path in such a way that the velocity remains constant.
 Finally, the total fluid leaving all the stator passages is ejected from a pipe/duct normal to the inlet duct. The possible
shapes of volute are shown
Different shapes of volute Types of inducers.
Classification of centrifugal compressors
Typical centrifugal compressor.
 Relative temperature rise characteristics of
centrifugal compressors.
Shapes of centrifugal impeller blades and outlet velocity triangles.
 Different types of impeller.

(a) Positive, (b) negative and (c) no prewhirl.

Layout of centrifugal compressor.
 Governing Equations
 The thermodynamic state of an ideal fluid is described by two properties, which may be the pressure and the temperature.
For fluid in motion, its velocity (magnitude and direction) must also be specified.
 The centrifugal compressor illustrated in Figure defines three states: the impeller inlet (state 1), impeller outlet (state 2),
and diffuser outlet (state 3).
 These states are also plotted on the T–S diagram in Figure. Each state is defined by two points: the static and total
(stagnation) conditions.
 Thus two pressure lines (static and total) are seen for each state. The compression processes are assumed adiabatic
irreversible, thus entropy increase is found in each process.
 The velocity triangles at the inlet and outlet of the impeller are shown in Figure. The velocity triangles in any turbomachine
are governed by the relation:

Where and are the absolute, rotational, and relative velocities, respectively.
 As shown in Figure, the flow at approach to the eye may be axial (C1) with a typical velocity of 150 m/s for air, or may have
a swirl angle (in case of prewhirl as will be discussed later).
 The flow velocity when added to the impeller tangential (rotational) velocity (U1) will give the relative velocity (W1),
which varies in magnitude and direction from eye hub to tip since U 1 varies with radii. This requires the inducer vane to be
twisted to align with the flow at all radii. It is normal for the relative Mach number at the eye tip to be below 0.9 and falls
to below 0.5 for most of the subsequent passage length to minimize frictional losses. This inlet velocity is drawn in the
axial- tangential plane.
 At the impeller outlet, the air leaves the passage with a relative velocity (W2), which, when added vectorially to the
tangential speed (U2), will give the absolute velocity (C2) which is greater than (C1) and represents the effect of work input
to the rotor shaft. The tip tangential velocity (U2) at outlet is slightly greater than the whirl velocity (Cu2), the difference is
called the slip.
 It is interesting to note here that the outlet velocity triangle is at the radial-tangential plane. Thus the inlet and outlet
velocity triangle at the inlet and outlet of impeller are in two different planes as shown in Figure.

Inlet and outlet velocity triangles

at space
 Returning to the thermodynamics and velocities at the three states of
the compressor

T–S diagram for a centrifugal compressor

 In the diffuser, there is merely a conversion of the kinetic energy into pressure energy. Thus, the total temperature at the
inlet and outlet of the stator are equal from the first law. The outlet total pressure is less than the inlet total pressure due to
friction. The static pressure rises in the diffuser while the absolute velocity decreases as found in any diffusing Passage.
 The governing equations for a moving fluid are
1. Conservation of mass or continuity equation
2. Momentum equation or Newton’s second law
3. Conservation of energy or the first law of thermodynamics
The Continuity Equation
 This equation is simply a statement that in steady flow the mass rates of fluid entering and leaving a control volume are
identical. Thus, considering a control volume between the impeller inlet (state 1) and outlet (state 2), then the continuity
equation is written as follows:

Air mass flow rate at the inlet is

and at the exit it is

 The Momentum Equation or Euler’s Equation for Turbomachinery
Newton’s second law of motion applied to the fluid passing through a control volume states that the rate of change of
momentum of the fluid is equal to the net applied force on the fluid in the control volume, or

For a steady flow between states 1 and 2, this can be written as

This equation is used to obtain the torque arising from the net force, which is related to the angular momentum of the fluid
within the control volume by multiplying the equation by the appropriate radii, thus

This vectorial equation is reduced to the following scalar relation for the torque about the axis of rotation

Or the final form known as Euler’s equation is given by the relation

 Since the power is equal to the torque times the rotational speed, then the power P is expressed as

The power needed to drive the compressor is greater than the power derived that is shown. A part of this power is consumed in
overcoming the friction between the casing and the air carried round by the vanes, the disk friction or the windage, and the
bearing friction. Thus the power input to the compressor (Pi) is equal to the power derived but multiplied by a power input
factor ψ:
where ψ = 1.035 − 1.04.
The Energy Equation or the First Law of Thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics states that the net change of energy of a fluid undergoing any process is equal to the net
transfer of work and heat between the fluid and its surroundings.

In most turbomachines, the potential energy is negligible. Moreover, turbomachines are adiabatic. Thus the heat term is
negligible, by adjusting the sign of the rate of work, then

Since the rate of work is the power (Pi =W ), then the left-hand side (LHS), which is the mechanical input power per unit mass
flow rate is equal to the enthalpy rise through the compressor. Thus from Equation
 Then from torque equation T = r2Cu2

then, the torque-Equation will be expressed as T = r2U2

The power,

The input power

The temperature rise

and the pressure ratio,

From that relation, it is justified to say that centrifugal compressor has the following performance characteristics, often called
“the three fan laws”:
1. Flow is proportional to impeller speed.
2. Differential pressure across an impeller is proportional to the square of the impeller
speed.
3. Power absorbed by the impeller varies with the cube of the impeller speed.
 Slip Factor σ
 If the flow at impeller discharge is perfectly guided by the impeller blades, then the tangential component of the
absolute velocity (swirl velocity) is equal to the rotational velocity (C u2 = U2). In practice the flow cannot be
perfectly guided by a finite number of blades and it is said to slip. Thus, at the impeller outlet, the swirl velocity is
less than the impeller rotational speed (Cu2 < U2). The classical explanation for the slip phenomenon uses the
concept of the relative eddy. As the flow into the impeller is normally irrotational, that is, it has no initial rotation,
then at the impeller discharge the flow relative to the impeller must rotate with an angular velocity equal and
opposite to the impeller.

Velocity triangles with slip.

 By combining this relative eddy and the radial through flow, the resultant relative velocity vector has a component in the
opposite direction to the impeller rotation.
 The slip factor is denoted by σ and defined as
 Though Stodola and Busemann derived formulae for this slip factor, the correlation proposed by Staintz has a wide range of
application. The Stanitz formula is expressed as

where n is the number of blades. It was considered satisfactory for both radial blades, forward- and backward-leaning blades
having blade angles ranging from −45° to +45°.
 As the number of vanes of impeller is increased, then the slip factor is also increased; slip lag at the tip of the impeller
reduces.

Effect of the number of blades on the outlet relative velocity

 The effect of slip is to reduce the magnitude of the swirl velocity from the ideal case. This in turn will reduce the pressure
ratio. In this way, slip will also reduce the compressor power consumption.
 The detrimental effect of slip is that the impeller must be larger or the rotational speed must be higher to deliver the same
pressure ratio. This leads to an increased stress level; it will also lead to increased relative velocity, which will lead to
increased friction loss and a reduced efficiency.
 Then, the temperature rise will be

The pressure ratio will be reduced and has the value

From Equation with

 Concept of Prewhirl
 The tangential component of velocity at the inlet to the impeller is usually zero as the flow enters the impeller axially. If
prewhirl (or inlet guide) vanes are installed to the inlet duct prior to the impeller, then the incoming air has a tangential
component of velocity. This velocity component depends on the vane outlet angle. Prewhirl may be positive or negative.
 Positive prewhirl reduces the inlet relative velocity, while negative prewhirl increases the inlet relative velocity. In
aeroengines, positive prewhirl is frequently used to reduce the inlet relative speed.
 The objective here is to avoid the formation of shock waves on the blade suction side. The designer of a compressor aims
for a small inlet area of the engine to reduce the drag force.
 At the same time the air mass flow rate is chosen as high as possible to maximize the thrust force. Both factors lead to the
increase of the axial absolute velocity at inlet, which in turn increases the relative velocity. Since the relative velocity is a
maximum at the tip radius of the inlet then when accelerated there is always a tendency for the air to break away from
the convex face of the curved part of the impeller vane.
 Here a shock wave might occur, which upon interaction with the boundary layer over the convex surface of blades causes
a large increase in boundary layer thickness. Thus excessive pressure loss occurs. The value of the inlet relative Mach
number must be in the range from 0.8 to 0.85 to avoid the shock wave losses previously described, or

where T1 is the static inlet temperature. Though this Mach number may be satisfactory on ground operation, it may be too
high at altitude as the ambient temperature decreases with altitude.
 For this reason, inlet guide vanes (IGV) are added to decrease the Mach number. These IGV are attached to the
compressor casing to provide a positive prewhirl that decreases the magnitude of the maximum relative velocity (W 1) at
the eye tip.
 The inlet guide vanes, sometimes denoted as swirl vanes, may swivel about radial axes to vary the swirl angle with speed.
Keeping W1 aligned with the inducer leading edge results in a minimum incidence or shock losses. Thus they widen the
operating speed range, increase efficiency and reduce the relative Mach number at the eye tip, but they also reduce the
mass flow by reducing the inlet area (shown in figure).
 Assuming that the axial velocity is uniform from the root to the tip of the eye then the maximum relative Mach number at
the eye tip is given by the relation

Inlet velocity triangle at tip.

 Another advantage of the prewhirl is that the curvature of the impeller vanes at the inlet will be reduced and so the
radius of curvature will increase. Thus the bending stress is decreased. The reason is that the inducer of the impeller
resembles a curved beam. The bending stress for curved beams is inversely proportional to the radius of curvature.
 Prewhirl also increases the relative angle (β1) measured between the relative velocity (W1) and the tangent. Thus

 However, prewhirl leads to a decrease in the work-capacity compressor as the angular momentum is reduced leading to
a decrease of the pressure ratio of the compressor. Since prewhirl creates a swirl component of the absolute inlet
velocity then it reduces the temperature rise in the compressor and also the compressor pressure ratio:
Further discussions for power input factor, slip factor, and efficiency will be given here:
 Power input factor and slip factor are neither independent of one another, nor of efficiency.
 The power input factor represents an increase in the work input shown that is needed for deriving the impeller (rotating
element) of the compressor.
 This increase is absorbed in overcoming frictional loss and therefore degraded into thermal energy.
 Power input factor should be as close as possible to unity.
 Low values of power input factor imply that the impeller is very efficient.
 However, the value of compressor efficiency also depends on friction losses in the
 diffuser, which do not affect power input factor. The slip factor limits the capacity of the compressor and this should be as
high as possible.
 A high value of slip factor requires a higher number of vanes.
 A higher number of vanes will increase frictional losses and hence increase the value of power input factor and decrease the
value of efficiency.
 A suitable compromise must be found, and present day practice is 19–34 vanes to get a slip factor value of 0.9.
Finally, it is worth mentioning that an efficient compressor may be better than a compact compressor. Moreover, historically,
trends showed that its value was 70% in 1950, raised to 75% in 1960, then to 82% in 1980, that it reached 85% in 2000, and
finally scored 87% by 2010. Its projected value is 90% in 2040.
 As a first assumption, calculate the inlet density from the total temperature and pressure;
thus,

Velocity triangle at inlet with slip

From the velocity triangle at inlet with slip

The density is recalculated from

the static temperature and
pressure just obtained as
0.47755 kg per metre cube.
A large difference is noticed
between this value and the
value obtained in Equation a,
thus iteration is performed until
equal values for the density is
obtained in two successive
Iterations.
 Characteristic Performance of a Centrifugal Compressor
Here, the characteristic behavior of a centrifugal compressor operating between inlet station denoted by 1 and outlet station
denoted by 2 will be described. Changing nomenclature a little, the overall stagnation pressure ratio to be P02/P01. For any
compressor, the stagnation pressure at outlet and the overall compressor efficiency are dependent on other physical
properties as follows

In the above relation, subscripts 01 and 02 denote the compressor inlet and outlet total conditions, the mass flow rate is
denoted by , specific heat ratio and gas constant are γ and R and the kinematic viscosity υ.
The compressor performance is defined (either experimentally or numerically) and plotted in what is called a compressor
map. This map has the vertical axis as the pressure ratio— or the compressor efficiency—and the mass flow parameter as
the vertical axis for varying rotational speed parameter. If the performance of compressor is to be defined experimentally,
the test rig provides capabilities for both speed and air mass flow rate. For each rotational speed, the air mass flow is
varied and the corresponding pressure ratio and efficiency
are determined. Next, the rotational speed is changed and another set of experiments is followed the mass flow rate,
pressure ratio and efficiency are changing. A schematic of the compressor map is shown in Figure 12.38.
In general, three forms for this map are found:
 Each speed line (or corrected speed) has two limiting points, namely, surging and choking points. The choking point is the
point at the farthest right on the curve. Choking point represents the maximum obtained mass flow rate, beyond which no
further mass flow rate can be obtained and choking is said to occur. The farthest left point on the constant speed curve
represents surging.
 Surging is associated with a drop in delivery pressure with violent aerodynamic pulsation, which is propagated into the
whole machine.
 Surging may be described as follows: if the operating point is on the part of the speed line having a positive slope, then a
decrease in the mass flow will be accompanied by a drop in the delivery pressure. If the pressure downstream the
compressor does not fall quickly enough, the air will tend to reverse and flow back in the direction of the resulting pressure
gradient. This leads to a rapid drop in the pressure ratio. Meanwhile, the pressure downstream the compressor has fallen
also, so that the compressor will be able to pick up again and repeat the cycle of events that occurs at high frequency.
AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS
 Axial compressors are those in which the air flows mainly parallel to the rotational axis. Axial flow compressors have a
large mass flow capacity, high reliability, and high efficiency, but have a smaller pressure rise per stage (1.1:1–1.4:1) than
centrifugal compressors (4:1–5:1). However, it is easy to link together several stages and produce a multistage axial
compressor having pressure ratios up to 40:1, as in recent compressors.
 Axial compressors are widely used in gas turbines, notably jet engines, wind tunnels, air blowers, and blast furnaces.
Engines using an axial compressor are known as axial flow engines. Almost all present-day jet engines use axial flow
compressors, the notable exception being those used in helicopters, where the smaller size of the centrifugal compressor
is useful. The fan in turbofan engines is also an axial compression module, which is treated as an axial compressor having
less blades of very large height, wide chord, and large twist. These fans may be single stage, or up to three stages, in low
bypass turbofan engines. Jet engines nowadays use two or three axial compressors for higher pressure ratios.
 A typical axial compressor depicted in Figure 13.1 has a series of rotating “rotor” blades followed by a stationary “stator”
set of blades that are concentric with the axis of rotation.
 The compressor blades/vanes are relatively flat in section. Each pair of rotors and stators is referred to as a “stage,” and
most axial compressors have a number of such stages placed in a row along a common power shaft in the center. The
stator blades are required in order to ensure reasonable efficiency; without them the gas would rotate with the rotor
blades resulting in a large drop in efficiency.
 The axial compressor compresses the working fluid (here only air will be treated) by first accelerating the air and then
diffusing it to obtain a pressure increase. The air is accelerated in the rotor and then diffused in the stator.
 This is illustrated in Figure 13.1 where the absolute velocity (C) increases in the rotor and decreases in the diffuser. For
successive stages, a saw-teeth pattern for the velocity is obtained, while the static pressure continuously increases in
both of the rotor and stator rows of all stages.
 The axial compressor is built of a series of stagers, each consisting of a disk of rotor blades followed by a ring of stator
vanes. The axial compressor is generally composed of four main elements: front frame, casing with inlet (stator) vanes,
 Schematic of a section of an axial compressor.

Cutaway sketch of a typical axial compressor assembly: the General

Electric JBS compressor. Layout of an axial compressor
Comparison between Axial and Centrifugal Compressors

 The centrifugal compressor achieves part of the compression process by causing the fluid to move outward in
the centrifugal force field produced by the rotation of the impeller. Thus, the pressure rises due to the change in
potential energy of the fluid in the centrifugal force field of the rotor.
 Conversely, the pressure rise in the axial flow compressor rotors and stators is achieved by the exchange of
kinetic energy with thermal energy in a diffusion process.
 The pressure rise in a centrifugal compressor is therefore less limited by the problems of boundary layer growth
and separation in adverse pressure gradients. Probably, for this reason, the centrifugal compressor was the first
to attain a range of pressure ratio and efficiency that was useful for turbojet engines.
 The essential feature of air flow in the impeller of a centrifugal compressor is that all the fluid leaves the rotor at
the tip radius rather than over a range of radii as in the axial compressor.
Advantages of the Axial Flow Compressor over the Centrifugal Compressor
1. Smaller frontal area for a given mass rate of flow (perhaps 1/2 or 1/3), thus the aerodynamic drag or nacelle housing the
engine is smaller, as shown in Figure
2. Much greater mass flow rates; for example, present-day axial compressors have mass flow rates up to 200 kg/s (up to 900
kg/s for high bypass ratio turbofan engines, while centrifugal compressors have mass flow rates less than 100 kg/s.
3. Flow direction discharge is more suitable for mitigating viscous effects, hence is suitable for large engines.
4. May use cascade experiment research in developing compressors.
5. Somewhat higher efficiency at high-pressure ratio (perhaps 4%–5% higher than centrifugal compressors).
6. Higher maximum pressure ratio, which was about 17 in the 1960s and achieved up to 45 for the present transonic
compressors.
Layouts of (a) axial and (b) centrifugal-flow compressors

Variations of the annulus section. (a) Constant casing diameter

(b) constant hub diameter and (c) constant mean diameter.
Advantages of Centrifugal-Flow Compressor over the Axial Flow Compressor
1. Higher stage pressure ratio (5:1 or even 10:1)
2. Simplicity and ruggedness of construction
3. Shorter length for the same overall pressure ratio
4. Generally less severe stall characteristics
5. Less drop in performance with the adherence of dust to blades
6. Cheaper to manufacture for equal pressure ratio
7. Flow direction of discharged air is convenient for the installation of an intercooler and/or heat exchanger in gas turbines
8. Wider range (margin) of stable operation between surging and choking limits at a given rotational speed, as shown in Figure

Compressor maps for axial (a) and centrifugal (b) compressors

 Mean Flow (Two-Dimensional Approach)

 The flow is considered to be occurring in the tangential plane at the mean blade height where the peripheral rotation
velocity is U; see Figure 13.5.
 This two-dimensional approach means that the flow velocity will have two velocity components, one axial denoted by
subscript (a) and one peripheral denoted by subscript (u).
 The radial velocity component is neglected here. The mean section for both of the axial compressor and axial turbine is
shown side by side in Figure 13.5, which illustrates how the hub-to-tip ratio of the axial compressor is much smaller than its
value in the axial turbine.
 For an axial compressor having a constant casing diameter, the radius of the mean section increases in a rearward direction
as shown in Figure 13.6. The velocity triangles at the inlet and outlet of a single stage are shown in Figure 13.7.
 The air approaches the rotor with an absolute velocity (C1), at an angle (α1) to the axial direction; when combined with the
rotational speed (U), the relative velocity will be (W1), at an angle (β1) to the axial; refer to Figure 13.8.
 After passing through the diverging passages formed between the rotor blades the absolute velocity (C 2) of the air will
increase (C2 > C 1) while its relative velocity W2 decreases (W2 < W1) and the flow exit angle β2 will be less than the flow inlet
angle β1 , (β2 < β1). This turning of flow toward the axial direction is necessary to increase the effective flow area. Since the
relative velocity is decreased due to diffusion (W2 < W1), then the static pressure increases (P2 > P1 ), that is, a pressure rise
will be developed in the rotor.
 The absolute velocity of the flow leaving the rotor is C2. The flow then passes through the stator passages, which are also
diverging, thus the absolute velocity is decreased, due to diffusion, and the static pressure is increased, that is, C3 < C2 and P3
> P2. The flow angle at the outlet of the stator will be equal to the inlet angle to the rotor in most designs, that is, α3 = α1.
 Figure 13.5 Mean tangential plane for both axial turbine (a) and axial compressor (b).

Figure 13.6 Variation of mean radius for a constant casing multistage axial compressor.
 Figure 13.7 Velocity triangles at the
inlet and outlet of a constant mean
radius.

Figure 13.8 Airflow in an IGV as well as one

and a half stages of an axial compressor.
Figure indicates the blade height is much less at the back end of the
compressor than at the front end. This is because most axial compressors are
designed so that the axial component of the average velocity is approximately
the same for all stages. With little change in average blade diameter, this
means that, on average, the ratio of axial velocity component to blade speed
varies little from stage to stage; this explains why in many compressors the
blade angles are similar for all stages. Constancy of axial velocity component
(under design conditions) requires that the annular flow area at the entrance
to each stage vary inversely with density. Thus at the back end of the
compressor, where pressure and density are highest, blade height is least.
 Blade Design- Cascade Measurements
 In order to obtain information on the effect of different blade designs
on air flow angles, pressure losses, and energy transfer across blade
rows, one must resort to cascade wind tunnels and cascade theory.
 Experimentation here is performed to ensure that the blade row
satisfies its objectives. The first objective is to turn air through the
required angles β1 – β2 for the rotor and α2 – α3 for the stator, with the
angle β1 – β2 as great as possible to maximize the stage pressure ratio.
 The second objective is to achieve the diffusing process with optimum
efficiency, that is, with minimum loss of stagnation pressure.
 Experiments are generally performed in a straight wind tunnel rather
than an annular form of tunnel.
 By the word “cascade,” it is meant a row of identical (geometrically
similar) blades equally spaced and parallel to each other and aligned
with the flow direction as shown in Figure.
 The height and length of cascade in a cascade wind tunnel are made as
large as the available air supply will allow, eliminating the interference Cascade wind tunnel.
effects due to the tunnel walls.
 Boundary layer suction on the walls is frequently applied to prevent contraction of the air stream. The cascade is mounted on
a turntable so that its angular direction with respect to the inflow duct (α1) can be set at any desired value and thus the
incidence angle (i) may be varied.
 The vertical traverses over the two planes, usually at a distance of one blade chord upstream and downstream of the cascade,
are provided with pitot tubes and yaw meters to measure the pressure and air flow angles
 (a) Three-dimensional illustration for cascade and (b) cascade nomenclature.
 Pressure and velocity measurements are made by the usual L-shaped pitot-static tubes. The air direction is found by either
claw or cylindrical yaw meters.
 Before proceeding further into cascade testing and blade design, it is necessary to define various important geometrical
issues and angles relevant to the design. Figure a and b represents a cascade that has the nomenclature listed in Table.
 The measured velocities
and angles above have
different meanings for
rotor and stator rows, as
defined in the table.

Other definitions here are  When the pressure and flow direction measuring instruments are traversed along the
blade row in the upstream and downstream positions, the results are as plotted in
Figure.

Variation of stagnation pressure loss and deflection for

cascade at a certain incidence angle
An averaging for this stagnation pressure and also an average for the deflection angle () is evaluated at this particular
incidence angle. The same measurements and averaging process are repeated for different incidence angles. The results are
plotted in Figure 13.32. The deflection increases with the angle of incidence up to a maximum angle ε s. This is the stall point
where separation occurs on the suction surface of the blade. Since this angle may not be well defined, it is taken as the angle
of incidence where the mean pressure loss is twice the minimum.

Mean deflection and mean stagnation pressure loss curves.

 Compressor Performance
 Figure 7.14(a) demonstrates this form of correlation (Eq. 7.22) in presenting the performance of a single-stage transonic
rotor designed for a tip speed of 425 m/s. As the flow-path sketch of Fig. 7.14(b) shows, there were no inlet guide vanes,
and the inlet diameter was approximately 200 mm. From the dimensions given, one can estimate that the inlet axial Mach
number at the blade tip at 100% design speed (20,260 rpm) as 0.5 and the Mach number of the flow relative to the blade
tip as 1.37.
 Figure 7.14(a) shows the pressure ratio and efficiency at three rotor speeds (100%, 85%, and 70% of design speed) and the
corresponding efficiencies. The peak efficiency at design speed is around 86%.
 The dashed line terminating the solid constant-speed lines is usually denoted as the "surge line," surge meaning a condition
of violently unsteady flow in the compressor that is an end result of boundary layer separation.
 Another interesting feature of Fig. 7.14(a) is the tendency of the constant speed lines to have slopes approaching minus
infinity at maximum flow rate. This indicates a kind of choking, since the flow rate leaving the compressor is essentially
independent of the exit pressure. The same effect is often observed with multistage compressors, for which Cumpsty [1]
points out that the appearance of choking need not mean that flow velocities at the back end of the compressor are
actually sonic. It could simply mean that while the front stages of the compressor continue to act normally, the flow
separation produced by negative flow incidence at the back end had become so severe that the last stage or two act like
throttles rather than compressor stages.
 Figure 7.15(a) shows the performance characteristics of another transonic compressor. This is one with considerably higher
pressure ratio (and nearly the same maximum efficiency) and with inlet guide vanes shown in the flow path of Fig. 7.15(b).
The rotor design rpm is 20,462 and its tip diameter is 0.3556 m. Note the large contraction in the annulus area through the
rotor. The average aspect (height-chord) ratios of rotor and stator blades are 0.720 and 0.836, respectively. For peak
efficiency operation at 100% of design speed, the mass flow rate of air was 11.38 kg/sand the total pressure ratios were
2.41 (rotor) and 2.29 (stage).
 The corresponding adiabatic efficiencies were 0.909 (rotor) and 0.851 (stage). Much experience in the past had indicated
 Surge
The "surge line" in Fig. 7 .14 denotes the locus of unstable operation of the compressor. The possibility of this instability, which
may easily lead to pressure oscillation violent enough to destroy the compressor blades, can be explained as follows: Consider
a single stage whose constant-speed (U) pressure-rise characteristic might be as shown in Fig. 7.16 if surge were not to occur.