OSI Reference model /

TCP/IP Reference model

OSI(Open System
Interconnection)
• It provides a general framework for standardization.

• It defines a set of layers and services provided by each layer.

• One or more protocols can be developed for each layer.

• Each layer performs a subset of the required communication functions

• Each layer relies on the next lower layer to perform more primitive functions

• Each layer provides services to the next higher layer

• Changes in one layer should not require changes in other layers

Elements of standardization
Protocol specification
• Operates between the same layer on two systems

• May involve different plaplatfors

• protocol specification must be precise

a. Format of data units

b. Semantics of all fields

Service definition

• Functional description of what is provided to the next upper layer

Addressing
• Referenced by SERVICE ADDRESSING PROTOCOLS
Application layer
• is the layer that is the closest to the end user.

• It receives information directly from users and displays incoming data to the
user.

• It also facilitates communication through lower layers in order to establish

connections with applications at the other end.

• Examples of applications that rely on this layer are web browsers, TelNet, and
FTP.
Presentation Layer
• is the layer that is independent of data representation at the application layer.

• It represents the preparation or translation of application format to network

format, or from network formatting to application format.

• In other words, the layer presents data for the application or the network.

• Examples of functions that happen at this layer are encryption and decryption of
data, compression and decompression of data, and character set conversion.
Session Layer
• is the layer that allows users on different machines to establish active
communications sessions between them.

• It is responsible for establishing, maintaining, synchronizing, terminating

sessions between end-user applications.

• It also handles and manipulates data that it receives from the presentation layer
or the transport layer.

• Examples of functions that happen at this layer are dialog control, token
management, synchronization, and session checkpointing and recovery.
Presentation layer Vs. Session
layer
• The Presentation Layer is responsible for formatting and converting data to
ensure that it is presentable for one application through the network to another
application.

• It is also responsible for data encryption, decryption, and compression.

• The Session Layer is responsible for coordinating communication interactions

between applications. It establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between
the local application and the remote applications.

• It also provides services such as session checkpointing and recovery, and session
termination.
Protocol Data Unit (PDU)
• User data is passed from layer to layer

• Control information is added/removed to/from user data at each layer

1. Header (and sometimes trailer)

2. each layer has a different header/trailer

• Header + Data + trailer = PDU (Protocol Data Unit)

• each layer has a different PDU

Transport Layer
• This is the fourth layer in the OSI model, and it is responsible for coordinating
the data transfer between end systems and hosts.

• It ensures that the data is delivered reliably, in order, and without errors.

• It also provides flow control, congestion control, and error recovery

mechanisms.

• Some examples of transport layer protocols are TCP, UDP, and SCTP
Services provided by Trnasport
layer
• Port addressing

• Segmentation and reassembly

• Connection control

• End to End flow control (Band width agremeent)

• Error control
Segment
• The Transport Layer divides the data it receives into smaller chunks known as
segments from the applications operating at the upper layers to facilitate
effective network transmission.

• The header of a segment in the Transport Layer of the OSI model contains

information such as the source port number, destination port number,

sequence number, acknowledgment number, and checksum .

• The footer of a segment in the Transport Layer of the OSI model does not exist.
Checksum
• is a value that is calculated from a block of data using a mathematical algorithm.

• It is used to detect errors that may have occurred during data transmission or storage.

• The checksum is calculated by adding up the values of all the bytes in the data block and
then performing a modulo operation on the sum.

• The result of the modulo operation is the checksum value.

• When the data is received, the checksum is recalculated using the same algorithm.

• If the calculated checksum matches the original checksum, it is assumed that the data has
not been corrupted during transmission or storage.

• If the checksums do not match, it is assumed that the data has been corrupted and needs to
be retransmitted or restored from a backup.
Port number
• A port number is a 16-bit value that identifies a specific application process or
service on a network device.

• Port number specialization

• 0-1023: well known port numbers

• 1024- 49151: registered port numbers

• 49152- 65535: Dynamically assigned port numbers

Types of port addresses
• A destination port number is the port number that the sender specifies in
the transport layer header to indicate which application or service on the
receiver should receive the data
Cont.
• A source port number is the port number that the sender uses to send the
data, and the receiver uses it to send back the response.
Network layer
• This is the third layer in the OSI model, and it is responsible for routing the
packets of data across different networks.

• It provides logical addressing, path determination, and packet forwarding

functions.

• Some examples of network layer protocols are IP, ICMP, and OSPF
Services provided by Network
layer
• Logical Addressing: tagging the source and destination IP Addresses

• This helps the router/switch to know where the data came from and where it is
going.

• Routing: Identifing the best route for the data/packet to deliver.

IP Address
• An IP address is a 32-bit or 128-bit value that identifies a unique network
interface on a device.

• It is used to identify in which network the sender and the reciever are.
Packet
• This is the term used to describe the unit of data that is encapsulated on the
network layer, which is the third layer in the OSI model.

• The packet consists of a header and a payload, where the header contains
information such as the source and destination IP addresses, protocol type, and
hop count.

• The payload contains the data segment that is being routed.

Data link Layer
• This is the second layer in the OSI model, and it is responsible for transmitting
the frames of data between adjacent nodes on a network.

• It provides physical addressing, error detection, and media access control

functions.

• Some examples of data link layer protocols are Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and PPP
Services provided by Data link
layer
• Framing: It is the last pdu before it gets to physical layer.

• The data makes sense upto this layer

• Physical addressing

• Flow control

• Error control

• Access control: for two or more devices connected to the network, It control
which device is going to access the data and which is not.
SubLayers of Datalink layer
• Logical Link Control (LLC): This sub-layer deals with multiplexing, the flow of
data among applications and other services, and error detection and correction.
It also provides a common interface for different network layer protocols to
access the data link layer
Cont.
• Media Access Control (MAC): This sub-layer manages the device’s interaction,
physical addressing, and media access control. It also handles access to the
shared channel and avoids collisions among multiple devices
Frames
• This is the term used to describe the unit of data that is encapsulated on the
data link layer, which is the second layer in the OSI model.

• The frame consists of a header, a payload, and a trailer, where the header
contains information such as the source and destination MAC addresses, frame
type, and error detection code

• .The payload contains the packet that is being transmitted.

• The trailer contains a frame check sequence that verifies the integrity of the
frame.
Physical Layer
• This is the first layer in the OSI model, and it is responsible for converting the
bits of data into electrical, optical, or radio signals that can be transmitted over a
physical medium.

• It provides the physical characteristics, such as voltage levels, timing, and

connectors, of the communication channel.

• Some examples of physical layer devices are cables, hubs, and repeaters
Services provided by Physical
layer
• Physical characteristics of the media : Whether it is wired or wierless.

• Representation of bits :encode the bits signal as the trnasmission media require.

• Data rate: How fast the data or bits are transfered every second.

• Synchronization of bits: Order of bits and configured time between sender and
reciever clock.

• Line configuration: Whether it is point to point communication or point to multi

point communication.

• Physical topology

• Transmission mode: whether it is simplex, half duplex or full duplex

Bits
• This is the term used to describe the unit of data that is transmitted on the
physical layer, which is the first layer in the OSI model.

• The bit is a binary digit that represents either a 0 or a 1, and it is encoded into a
signal that can be transmitted over a physical medium, such as a wire, a fiber, or
a radio wave
TCP/IP protocol model
Application Layer

• This layer is responsible for providing services to the user applications.

• It provides an interface between the application and the network.

• Examples of protocols that operate at this layer include HTTP, FTP, SMTP, and
Telnet.
Transport layer
• This layer is responsible for providing end-to-end communication between the
source and destination hosts.

• It ensures that data is delivered reliably and in order.

• Examples of protocols that operate at this layer include TCP and UDP.

• Port numbers are used by both TCP and UDP protocols to identify the target
application.
Network Layer
• This layer is responsible for providing logical addressing and routing services.

• It is responsible for the transmission of packets across network boundaries.

• Examples of protocols that operate at this layer include IP and ICMP.

Network Access Layer
• This layer is responsible for providing physical addressing and transmission of
data over the physical medium.

• It is responsible for the transmission of frames between adjacent nodes.

• Examples of protocols that operate at this layer include Ethernet and Wi-Fi.