Lecture2: Introduction to OS

Modified by: Dr Hossam Mahmoud Moftah

Associate professor – Faculty of Computers and Artificial Intelligence

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edit9on Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Interrupt Timeline

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 I/O Structure
 After I/O starts, control returns to user program
only upon I/O completion
 Wait instruction idles the CPU until the next
interrupt
 Wait loop (contention for memory access)
 At most one I/O request is outstanding at a
time, no simultaneous I/O processing
 After I/O starts, control returns to user program
without waiting for I/O completion
 System call – request to the OS to allow user
to wait for I/O completion
 Device-status table contains entry for each I/O
device indicating its type, address, and state
 OS indexes into I/O device table to determine
device status and to modify table entry to
include interrupt

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.3 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Storage Definitions and Notation Review
The basic unit of computer storage is the bit. A bit can contain one of two
values, 0 and 1. All other storage in a computer is based on collections of bits.
Given enough bits, it is amazing how many things a computer can represent:
numbers, letters, images, movies, sounds, documents, and programs, to name
a few. A byte is 8 bits, and on most computers it is the smallest convenient
chunk of storage. For example, most computers don’t have an instruction to
move a bit but do have one to move a byte. A less common term is word,
which is a given computer architecture’s native unit of data. A word is made up
of one or more bytes. For example, a computer that has 64-bit registers and
64-bit memory addressing typically has 64-bit (8-byte) words. A computer
executes many operations in its native word size rather than a byte at a time.
A byte is eight bits, a word is 2 bytes (16 bits), a doubleword is 4 bytes (32
bits), and a quadword is 8 bytes (64 bits).

Computer storage, along with most computer throughput, is generally

measured and manipulated in bytes and collections of bytes.
A kilobyte, or KB, is 1,024 bytes
a megabyte, or MB, is 1,0242 bytes
a gigabyte, or GB, is 1,0243 bytes
a terabyte, or TB, is 1,0244 bytes
a petabyte, or PB, is 1,0245 bytes

Computer manufacturers often round off these numbers and say that a
megabyte is 1 million bytes and a gigabyte is 1 billion bytes. Networking
measurements are an exception to this general rule; they are given in bits
(because networks move data a bit at a time).

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Storage Structure
 Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU
can access directly
 Random access
 volatile
 Secondary storage – extension of main memory that
provides large nonvolatile storage capacity
 Hard disks – rigid metal or glass platters covered with
magnetic recording material
 Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are
subdivided into sectors
 The disk controller determines the logical interaction
between the device and the computer
 Solid-state disks – faster than hard disks, nonvolatile
 Various technologies
 Becoming more popular

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Storage Hierarchy

 Storage systems organized in hierarchy

 Speed
 Cost
 Volatility
 Caching – copying information into faster
storage system; main memory can be viewed
as a cache for secondary storage
 Device Driver for each device controller to
manage I/O
 Provides uniform interface between
controller and kernel

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Storage-Device Hierarchy

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Caching

 Important principle, performed at many levels in

a computer (in hardware, operating system,
software)
 Information in use copied from slower to faster
storage temporarily
 Faster storage (cache) checked first to
determine if information is there
 If it is, information used directly from the
cache (fast)
 If not, data copied to cache and used there
 Cache smaller than storage being cached
 Cache management important design
problem
 Cache size and replacement policy

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.8 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Direct Memory Access Structure

 Used for high-speed I/O devices able to

transmit information at close to memory
speeds
 Device controller transfers blocks of data
from buffer storage directly to main memory
without CPU intervention
 Only one interrupt is generated per block,
rather than the one interrupt per byte

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 How a Modern Computer Works

By DMAC Chip

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Computer-System Architecture

 Most systems use a single general-purpose processor

 Most systems have special-purpose processors as well
 Multiprocessors systems growing in use and importance
 Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems
 Advantages include:
1. Increased throughput
2. Economy of scale
3. Increased reliability – graceful degradation or fault
tolerance
 Two types:
1. Asymmetric Multiprocessing – each processor is
assigned a specie task.
2. Symmetric Multiprocessing – each processor performs
all tasks

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.11 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.12 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 A Dual-Core Design
 Multi-chip and multicore
 Systems containing all chips
 Chassis containing multiple separate systems

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.13 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Clustered Systems

 Like multiprocessor systems, but multiple systems working

together
 Usually sharing storage via a storage-area network (SAN)
 Provides a high-availability service which survives
failures
 Asymmetric clustering has one machine in hot-standby
mode
 Symmetric clustering has multiple nodes running
applications, monitoring each other
 Some clusters are for high-performance computing (HPC)
 Applications must be written to use parallelization
 Some have distributed lock manager (DLM) to avoid
conflicting operations

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.14 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Clustered Systems

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.15 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Operating System Structure
 Multiprogramming (Batch system) needed for efficiency
 Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
 Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always
has one to execute
 A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
 One job selected and run via job scheduling
 When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another
job

 Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU

switches jobs so frequently that users can interact with each job
while it is running, creating interactive computing
 Response time should be < 1 second
 Each user has at least one program executing in memory
process
 If several jobs ready to run at the same time  CPU scheduling
 If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out
to run
 Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in
memory

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.17 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Operating-System Operations
 Interrupt driven (hardware and software)
1. Hardware interrupt by one of the devices
2. Software interrupt (exception or trap):
 Software error (e.g., division by zero)
 Request for operating system service
 Other process problems include infinite
loop, processes modifying each other or the
operating system

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.18 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Operating-System Operations (cont.)
 Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and
other system components
 User mode and kernel mode
 the executing code has complete and
unrestricted access to the underlying hardware
 the executing code has no ability to directly
access hardware or reference memory
 Mode bit provided by hardware
 Provides ability to distinguish when system is
running user code or kernel code
 Some instructions designated as privileged, only
executable in kernel mode
 System call changes mode to kernel, return from
call resets it to user
 Increasingly CPUs support multi-mode operations
 i.e. virtual machine manager (VMM) mode for guest
VMs

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.19 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Transition from User to Kernel Mode
 Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging resources
 Timer is set to interrupt the computer after some time
period
 Keep a counter that is decremented by the physical
clock.
 Operating system set the counter (privileged instruction)
 When counter zero generate an interrupt
 Set up before scheduling process to regain control or
terminate program that exceeds allotted time

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.20 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Process Management
 A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work
within the system. Program is a passive entity, process is
an active entity.
 Process needs resources to accomplish its task
 CPU, memory, I/O, files
 Initialization data
 Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable
resources
 Single-threaded process has one program counter
specifying location of next instruction to execute
 Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a
time, until completion
 Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread
 Typically system has many processes, some user, some
operating system running concurrently on one or more
CPUs
 Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the
processes / threads

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.21 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Process Management Activities

The operating system is responsible for the following

activities in connection with process management:
 Creating and deleting both user and system processes
 Suspending and resuming processes
 Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
 Providing mechanisms for process communication
 Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.22 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Memory Management

 To execute a program all (or part) of the instructions

must be in memory
 All (or part) of the data that is needed by the program
must be in memory.
 Memory management determines what is in memory
and when
 Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response
to users
 Memory management activities
 Keeping track of which parts of memory are
currently being used and by whom
 Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and
data to move into and out of memory
 Allocating and deallocating memory space as
needed

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.23 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Storage Management
 OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage
 Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit -
file
 Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive,
tape drive)
 Varying properties include access speed, capacity,
data-transfer rate, access method (sequential or
random)

 File-System management
 Files usually organized into directories
 Access control on most systems to determine who can
access what
 OS activities include
 Creating and deleting files and directories
 Primitives to manipulate files and directories
 Mapping files onto secondary storage
 Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.24 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Mass-Storage Management
 Mass storage: refers to the storage of large amounts of
data
 Usually disks used to store data that does not fit in main
memory or data that must be kept for a “long” period of
time
 Proper management is of central importance
 OS activities
 Free-space management
 Storage allocation
 Disk scheduling or (I/O) scheduling
 Some storage need not be fast
 Tertiary storage includes optical storage, magnetic tape
 Still must be managed – by OS or applications
 Varies between WORM (write-once, read-many-times)
and RW (read-write)

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.25 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Performance of Various Levels of Storage

Movement between levels of storage hierarchy can be

explicit or implicit
 CMOS: Complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor
 Main memory SRAM or DRAM

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.26 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 The end

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edit9on Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne