Objectives

• Learn why you need to understand how computers

work
• Learn what a CPU is, and what it is made of
• Learn how digital logic circuits are constructed
• Learn the basic Boolean operators
• Understand how the basic logic gates operate and
are used to build complex computer circuits
Connecting with Computer Science 2
 Objectives (continued)
• Learn the importance of von Neumann architecture

• Understand how the computer uses memory

• Learn what a system bus is and what its purpose is

• Understand the difference between memory and

storage

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 Objectives (continued)
• Be able to describe basic input/output devices

• Understand how a computer uses interrupts and

polling

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 Why You Need to Know About...
Computer Architecture
• Computer: hardware designed to run software

– Purpose: accomplish desired tasks

• Professional’s need: understand logical connection

between hardware and software

• Computer architecture: organization of hardware

components into a computer system

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 Inside the Box
• Computer system: an external view
– Monitor
– Keyboard and mouse
– Computer case
• CPU (central processing unit)
– Resides in case on main board or motherboard
– Computational center served by all other parts
– Touch point for the study of computer architecture

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Connecting with Computer Science 7
Connecting with Computer Science 8
 PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect)
The PCI bus came in both 32-bit (133MBps) and 64-bit versions
and was used to attach hardware to a computer. PCI has been
replaced with PCI Express.
AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port)
is an advanced port designed for Video cards and 3D accelerators.
IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics)
is a standard electronic interface used between a computer
motherboard's data paths or bus and the computer's disk storage
devices.
EIDE (Enhanced IDE)
EIDE supports data rates from 4 and 16.6 MBps.
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 The CPU
• The CPU is the computer
– Contains digital components that do processing
– Fundamental component: transistor

• Transistor
– Electronic switch accommodates binary values
– Millions of transistors per chip
– Organized into a higher level called a circuit
Connecting with Computer Science 10
 The CPU (continued)
• Four basic functions: Adding, Decoding, Shifting,
Storing

• Four corresponding transistor circuits

– Adder: adds, subtracts, multiplies, divides

– Decoder: reacts to specific bit patterns

– Shifter: moves bits to right or left

– Flip-flops (latches): used to store memory bits

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 How Transistors Work
• Material composition: silicon or germanium (Ge)
• Logically organized into three parts: emitter,
collector, and base
• Transistor as electronic switch
– Base used to turn current on and off
– Capacity to control current translates into capacity to
manipulate binary values of 1 and 0
• Size considerations: Typical transistor 130
nanometers wide (Pentium IV)
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 Digital Logic Circuits
• Logic circuit
– Next level of organization above transistor
– Leverages switching function of transistor
– Performs operations of Boolean algebra
• Boolean algebra
– Functions relating binary input and output
– Chief operators: AND, OR, NOT
– Boolean variables are true (1) or false (0)
– Boolean expressions use Boolean operators and
variables
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 Digital Logic Circuits (continued)
• Truth tables
– Convenient tabular representations of Boolean
expressions
– Column(s) represent inputs and output(s)
– Rows correspond to each possible combination of
inputs
• 2n rows needed for n inputs (n is positive integer)
• Example: two inputs require 2 2 = 4 rows

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 The Basic Boolean Operators
• Three Basic Operators: AND, OR, NOT
• AND operator
– Takes two values as input (x and y) and generates one
output (z)
– Both inputs must be true (1) for output to be true (1)
• When x = 1 and y = 1, z = 1
– Any other combination yields output of false (0)
– Equivalent Boolean Expression: xy = z

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Connecting with Computer Science 17
 The Basic Boolean Operators
(continued)
• OR operator
– Takes two values as input (x and y) and generates one
output (z)
– Either input valued true (1) will cause output to be
valued true (1)
– When both inputs are valued false (0), output will be
valued false (0)
– Equivalent Boolean expression: x + y = z
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Connecting with Computer Science 19
 The Basic Boolean Operators
(continued)
• NOT operator
– Takes one value as input (x) and generates one output
(z) x

– Reverses value of input.

• When x = 1, z = 0
• When x = 0, z = 1

Equivalent Boolean expression: x = z or x = z

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 Digital Building Blocks
• Circuit Hierarchy
– Gates: transistor circuits implement Boolean operators
– Gates grouped into more complex circuits that carry out
computer tasks
• Reliability
– Binary values maintained with consistent voltage levels
– Output of gates completely determined by input
• Six fundamental gates
– AND, OR, NOT (primitive or basic)
– NAND, NOR, XOR (constructed from AND, OR, NOT)

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 Digital Building Blocks
(continued)
• AND gate
– Allows for two inputs and has one output
– Truth table identical to that of AND Boolean Operator

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 Digital Building Blocks
(continued)
• OR gate
– Allows for two inputs and has one output
– Truth table identical to that of Boolean OR

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 Digital Building Blocks
(continued)
• NOT gate
– Allows for one input and one output
– Truth table identical to Boolean NOT

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 Digital Building Blocks
(continued)
• NAND gate
– Reverses output of AND gate with NOT gate
– Output opposite that of AND gate

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 Digital Building Blocks
(continued)
• NOR gate
– Reverses output of OR gate with NOT gate
– Truth table opposite of OR gate truth table

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 Digital Building Blocks
(continued)
• XOR gate
– Exclusive OR (one or the other, but not both)
– Inputs with opposite values generate output of 1

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 Gate Behavior
• Predictability of Gates
– Predicated on corresponding truth table
– Output for given input derived from truth table
• Scalability
– Complex circuits constructed with basic gates
– Output of one gate is connected as input to another
– Example: 3-input AND gate from two 2-input AND
gates
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Connecting with Computer Science 30
 Complex Circuits
• Four Fundamental circuits of CPU
– ADDER, DECODER, SHIFTER, FLIP-FLOP
– Constructed from basic gates
• ADDER
– Function: adds two binary numbers, outputs result
– Inputs: two bits (x, y) to add and one carry-in (ci)
– Outputs: sum bit (s) and one carry-out bit (co)

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 Complex Circuits (continued)
• Decoder
– Functions: Address memory, select I/O devices
– Given input pattern, output line selected
– Circuit with n inputs can control 2n lines
• Example: 32 inputs could control 4 billion lines
– Illustrate Decoder with two inputs
• Has four possible outputs
• Truth table incorporates four basic truth tables
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Connecting with Computer Science 35
 Complex Circuits (continued)
• Flip-flop
– Special form of latch circuit
– Function: holds value at output even if input changes
– Inputs: S (set) and R (reset)
– Outputs: Q and Q
– Ideal for bit storage
• Used for high-speed memory in CPU
• Static RAM, SRAM, cache
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Connecting with Computer Science 37
 Complex Circuits (continued)
• Shifter
– Purpose: support math operations such as
multiplication and division
– Function: shifts input bits to the left or right

Connecting with Computer Science 38

 Complex Circuits (continued)

• Other circuits: multiplexer, parity generator, counter

• Three part design process

– Construct truth table relating inputs and outputs

– Build Boolean expression equivalent to truth table

– Represent Boolean expression in a circuit diagram

Connecting with Computer Science 39

 Complex Circuits (continued)
• Modern design efforts supported with software

• Integrated Circuits (ICs)

– Whole circuits etched onto single semiconductor chip

– VLSI (Very Large-Scale Integration) chip

• Contains millions of transistors making up CPU circuits

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The Von Neumann Architecture

Von Neumann
Architecture
 Designing Computers
• All computers more or less based on the same basic
design, the Von Neumann Architecture!

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 The Von Neumann Architecture
• Model for designing and building computers,
based on the following three characteristics:
1) The computer consists of four main sub-systems:
• Memory
• ALU (Arithmetic/Logic Unit)
• Control Unit
• Input/Output System (I/O)
2) Program is stored in memory during execution.
3) Program instructions are executed sequentially.

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 The Von Neumann Architecture
Bus

Processor (CPU)
Memory Input-Output
Control Unit

ALU
Store data and program Communicate with
"outside world", e.g.
• Screen
Execute program
• Keyboard
Do arithmetic/logic operations • Storage devices
requested by program • ...
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 Memory Subsystem
• Memory, also called RAM (Random Access Memory),
– Consists of many memory cells (storage units) of a fixed size.
Each cell has an address associated with it: 0, 1, …
– All accesses to memory are to a specified address.
A cell is the minimum unit of access (fetch/store a complete cell).
– The time it takes to fetch/store a cell is the same for all cells.
• When the computer is running, both
– Program
– Data (variables)
are stored in the memory.

Connecting with Computer Science 45

 RAM
• Need to distinguish between N
– the address of a memory cell and 0000000000000001
the content of a memory cell 1 bit
• Memory width (W): 0
– How many bits is each memory
1
cell, typically one byte (=8 bits)
2
• Address width (N):
– How many bits used to represent 2N
each address, determines the
maximum memory size = address ...
space
– If address width is N-bits, then
address space is 2N (0,1,...,2N-1) 2N-1

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46
 Memory Size / Speed
• Typical memory in a personal computer (PC):
– 64MB - 256MB
• Memory sizes:
– Kilobyte (KB) = 210 = 1,024 bytes ~ 1
thousand
– Megabyte(MB) = 220 = 1,048,576 bytes ~ 1 million
– Gigabyte (GB) = 230 = 1,073,741,824 bytes ~ 1
billion
• Memory Access Time (read from/ write to memory)
– 50-75 nanoseconds (1 nsec. = 0.000000001 sec.)
• RAM is
– volatile (can only store when power is on)
– relatively expensive
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 Operations on Memory
• Fetch (address):
– Fetch a copy of the content of memory cell with the specified
address.
– Non-destructive, copies value in memory cell.
• Store (address, value):
– Store the specified value into the memory cell specified by
address.
– Destructive, overwrites the previous value of the memory cell.
• The memory system is interfaced via:
– Memory Address Register (MAR)
– Memory Data Register (MDR)
– Fetch/Store signal

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 Structure of the Memory Subsystem

• Fetch(address)
MAR MDR – Load address into MAR.
F/S – Decode the address in MAR.
Memory – Copy the content of memory cell with
Fetch/Store
decoder specified address into MDR.
controller
circuit
• Store(address, value)
– Load the address into MAR.
– Load the value into MDR.
– Decode the address in MAR
... – Copy the content of MDR into
memory cell with the specified
address.

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 Input/Output Subsystem
• Handles devices that allow the computer system to:
– Communicate and interact with the outside world
• Screen, keyboard, printer, ...
– Store information (mass-storage)
• Hard-drives, floppies, CD, tapes, …
• Mass-Storage Device Access Methods:
– Direct Access Storage Devices (DASDs)
• Hard-drives, floppy-disks, CD-ROMs, ...
– Sequential Access Storage Devices (SASDs)
• Tapes (for example, used as backup devices)

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 I/O Controllers
• Speed of I/O devices is slow compared to RAM
– RAM ~ 50 nsec.
– Hard-Drive ~ 10msec. = (10,000,000 nsec)
• Solution:
– I/O Controller, a special purpose processor:
• Has a small memory buffer, and a control logic to
control I/O device (e.g. move disk arm).
• Sends an interrupt signal to CPU when done read/write.
– Data transferred between RAM and memory buffer.
– Processor free to do something else while I/O controller
reads/writes data from/to device into I/O buffer.

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 Structure of the I/O Subsystem
Interrupt signal (to processor)
Data from/to memory

I/O controller
I/O Buffer

Control/Logic

I/O device

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 The ALU Subsystem
• The ALU (Arithmetic/Logic Unit) performs
– mathematical operations (+, -, x, /, …)
– logic operations (=, <, >, and, or, not, ...)
• In today's computers integrated into the CPU
• Consists of:
– Circuits to do the arithmetic/logic operations.
– Registers (fast storage units) to store intermediate
computational results.
– Bus that connects the two.

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 Structure of the ALU
• Registers:
– Very fast local memory cells, that R0
store operands of operations and R1
intermediate results.
R2
– CCR (condition code register), a
special purpose register that stores
the result of <, = , > operations
• ALU circuitry: Rn
– Contains an array of circuits to do
mathematical/logic operations.
• Bus: ALU circuitry
– Data path interconnecting the
registers to the ALU circuitry.
GT EQ LT
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 The Control Unit
• Program is stored in memory
– as machine language instructions, in binary
• The task of the control unit is to execute programs
by repeatedly:
– Fetch from memory the next instruction to be
executed.
– Decode it, that is, determine what is to be done.
– Execute it by issuing the appropriate signals to the
ALU, memory, and I/O subsystems.
– Continues until the HALT instruction
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 Machine Language Instructions
• A machine language instruction consists of:
– Operation code, telling which operation to perform
– Address field(s), telling the memory addresses of
the values on which the operation works.
• Example: ADD X, Y (Add content of memory locations X
and Y, and store back in memory location Y).
• Assume: opcode for ADD is 9, and addresses X=99, Y=100

Opcode (8 bits) Address 1 (16 bits) Address 2 (16 bits)

00001001 0000000001100011 0000000001100100

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 Instruction Set Design
• Two different approaches:
– Reduced Instruction Set Computers (RISC)
• Instruction set as small and simple as possible.
• Minimizes amount of circuitry --> faster computers
– Complex Instruction Set Computers (CISC)
• More instructions, many very complex
• Each instruction can do more work, but require
more circuitry.

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 Typical Machine Instructions
• Notation:
– We use X, Y, Z to denote RAM cells
– Assume only one register R (for simplicity)
– Use English-like descriptions (should be binary)
• Data Transfer Instructions
– LOAD X Load content of memory location X to
R
– STORE X Load content of R to memory location X
– MOVE X, Y Copy content of memory location X to
loc. Y
(not absolutely necessary)
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 Machine Instructions (cont.)
• Arithmetic
– ADD X, Y, Z CON(Z) = CON(X) + CON(Y)
– ADD X, Y CON(Y) = CON(X) + CON(Y)
– ADD X R = CON(X) + R
– similar instructions for other operators, e.g. SUBTR,OR, ...
• Compare
– COMPARE X, Y
Compare the content of memory cell X to the content of
memory cell Y and set the condition codes (CCR) accordingly.
– E.g. If CON(X) = R then set EQ=1, GT=0, LT=0

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 Machine Instructions (cont.)
• Branch
– JUMP X Load next instruction from memory loc.
X
– JUMPGT X Load next instruction from memory loc. X
only if GT flag in CCR is set, otherwise
load statement from next sequence loc. as
usual.
• JUMPEQ, JUMPLT, JUMPGE, JUMPLE,JUMPNEQ
• Control
– HALT Stop program execution.

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 Example
• Pseudo-code: Set A to B + C
• Assuming variable:
– A stored in memory cell 100, B stored in memory
cell 150, C stored in memory cell 151
• Machine language (really in binary)
– LOAD 150
– ADD 151
– STORE 100
– or
– (ADD 150, 151, 100)

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 Structure of the Control Unit
• PC (Program Counter):
– stores the address of next instruction to fetch
• IR (Instruction Register):
– stores the instruction fetched from memory
• Instruction Decoder:
– Decodes instruction and activates necessary circuitry

PC IR

+1
Instruction
Decoder

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 Von Neumann Architecture overview

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 von Neumann Architecture
in more details

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 How does this all work together?
• Program Execution:
– PC is set to the address where the first program
instruction is stored in memory.
– Repeat until HALT instruction or fatal error
Fetch instruction
Decode instruction
Execute instruction
End of loop

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 Program Execution (cont.)
• Fetch phase
– PC --> MAR (put address in PC into MAR)
– Fetch signal (signal memory to fetch value into
MDR)
– MDR --> IR (move value to Instruction Register)
– PC + 1 --> PC (Increase address in program counter)
• Decode Phase
– IR -> Instruction decoder (decode instruction in IR)
– Instruction decoder will then generate the signals to
activate the circuitry to carry out the instruction
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 Program Execution (cont.)
• Execute Phase
– Differs from one instruction to the next.
• Example:
– LOAD X (load value in addr. X into register)
• IR_address -> MAR
• Fetch signal
• MDR --> R
– ADD X
• left as an exercise

(c) Yngvi Bjornsson 67

 Instruction Set for Our Von Neumann Machine
Opcode Operation Meaning
0000 LOAD X CON(X) --> R
0001 STORE X R --> CON(X)
0010 CLEAR X 0 --> CON(X)
0011 ADD X R + CON(X) --> R
0100 INCREMENT X CON(X) + 1 --> CON(X)
0101 SUBTRACT X R - CON(X) --> R
DECREMENT CON(X) - 1 --> CON(X)
0101
X
COMPARE X If CON(X) > R then GT = 1 else 0
0111 If CON(X) = R then EQ = 1 else 0
If CON(X) < R then LT = 1 else 0
1000 JUMP X Get next instruction from memory location X
1001 JUMPGT X Get next instruction from memory loc. X if GT=1
... JUMPxx X xx = LT / EQ / NEQ
1101 IN X Input an integer value and store in X
1110 OUT X Output, in decimal notation, content of mem. loc. X
HALT Science
1111 with Computer
Connecting Stop program execution
68
 Buses
• Bus: set of wires and rules facilitating data transfer
• Components connected via system bus
• Bus wires divided into three separate signal groups:
– Control
– Address
– Data
• Modern bus standard: PCI (Peripheral Component
Interconnect)

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 Peripheral Buses
• SCSI: Small Computer System Interface

– Connects different types of I/O devices to computer

– Allows CPU to pass control to other devices (bus

mastering)

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 Storage
• Storage: family of components used to store
programs and data

• Storage hierarchy

– Primary memory

– Secondary memory (mass storage)

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 Memory
• Two basic flavors
– ROM (read-only memory)
• Memory etched into chip
• Generally cannot be modified
• BIOS (basic input/output system) in this category
– RAM (random access memory) basics
• Allows direct memory reference
• Allows reading and writing
• Volatile
• CPU fetches program instructions from RAM
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 Memory (continued)
• Types of RAM
– DRAM (Dynamic RAM)
• Made of circuits using one transistor per bit
• Needs to be constantly refreshed to maintain data
• Access speeds ranging from 10 – 70 ns
– SRAM
• Made of flip flop circuits
• Fastest memory type
• Used chiefly in registers and cache

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 Mass Storage
• Secondary memory characteristics

– Greater storage capacity than RAM or ROM

– Used for devices such as hard drive or CD-ROMS

– Cheaper storage per megabyte than RAM or ROM

– Non-volatile

– Slower than RAM or ROM

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 Mass Storage (continued)
• Hard disk drives
– Most common form of mass storage
– Magnetic metal platters store information
• Organized into concentric circles called tracks
• Tracks divided into sectors
• Platters spin at about 7200 RPM
• Read/write heads interface with disk surface
– Low cost-unit storage ratio relative to RAM
– RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Discs)

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 Mass Storage (continued)
• Optical Storage
– Popular formats: CDs (compact disks) and DVDs
(digital video disks)
– Stores data using optical (laser) technologies
• Pits burned into disks interpreted as binary data
• Data written to disks in continuous spiral
• Like hard disks, CDs and DVDs spin
• Read/write heads interface with disk surface
– Low cost-unit storage ratio
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 Mass Storage (continued)
• Flash (Thumb) drives

– Portable storage that plugs into USB (Universal Serial

Bus) port

– Replacing floppy drives

– Uses non-volatile flash memory

– Low cost-unit storage ratio

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 Input/Output Systems
• Final component of Von Neumann architecture

• Input/Output (I/O) devices: computer’s connection to

user

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 Input Devices
• Keyboard
– Chief input device for most users
– Connected to motherboard through port and then to CPU
by controller circuit and system bus
– Keystrokes are translated into binary signals for CPU
consumption
• Mouse
– Used in conjunction with keyboard
– Senses movement that can be translated into binary code
• Other devices: trackballs, styluses, touch pads/screens
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Connecting with Computer Science 81
 Output Devices
• Communication channel to outside world
• Monitors
– Primary output device
– CRTs (cathode ray tubes)
• Utilizes raster scanning techniques
• Quality based on resolution and refresh rate
– LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)
• Thinner and cooler than CRTs
• Utilizes transistors rather than electron beams
• Quality based on resolution and refresh rate

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Connecting with Computer Science 83
 Output Devices (continued)
• Printers
– Important output device
– Chief varieties: ink jet and laser printers
– Quality measured by resolution (dots per inch) and
speed (pages per minute)
• Sound cards
– Fit into PCI expansion slot on main boar
– Used to digitize sound for storage
– Also converts binary sound files into analog sounds

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 Interrupts and Polling
• CPU instruction cycle equals clock speed

• CPU commits to cycle based on processing need

• Processing need determined by (2) techniques

– Polling: CPU interrogates I/O device

– Interrupt Handling: I/O device initiates request for

service

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 Choosing the Best
Computer Hardware
• No one size fits all
• Circumstances drive selection process
• Some criteria
– Define objectives for machine
– Ascertain metrics such as clock speed, memory type,
bus speed, hard drive speed
– Compare models
– Solicit opinions
– Consider price

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 One Last Thought
• All computer scientists need architectural concepts

• Advanced hardware studies highly recommended

• Stay current on latest industry developments

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 Summary
• Computer architecture: hardware design
• Von Neumann architecture: design template for modern
machines
• Components of Von Neumann machine:
– Central Processing Unit (CPU)
– Memory (organized in a hierarchy)
– Input/Output Devices
• CPU: ALU/Controller/Registers
• System components are connected via buses

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 Summary (continued)
• Instruction cycle: fetch-decode-execute

• Instructions processed at clock speed

• Basic circuits: Adder/Decoder/Flip-flop/Shifter

• Integrated circuits unite transistors and other

components into single chip

• Logical circuit scheme based on Boolean Algebra

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 Summary (continued)
• Six fundamental circuits (or gates)

– AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR,XOR

• All circuits can be equivalently represented by truth

tables and Boolean expressions

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