C++ Programming

C++
C++ is a general-purpose programming language

Implementations of C++ exist from some of the most modest microcomputers to the largest supercomputers
and for almost all operating systems.

C++ is a superset of the C programming language. In addition to the facilities provided by C, C++ provides flexible
and efficient facilities for defining new types.

The C++ language support four programming styles:

• Procedural programming
• Data abstraction
• Object-oriented programming
• Generic programming

C++ supports systems programming.

History:

C++ developed by Bjarne Stroustrup in 1979 at AT&T Bell Laboratory.

C++ developed using class concept of Simula( already existing language which supported OOP paradigm) and C’s
efficiency and flexibility for systems programming.

Templates and exceptions added to C++ later.

1979: Work on ‘‘C with Classes’’ started. The initial feature set included classes and derived classes, public/private
access control, constructors and destructors, and function declarations with argument checking.

1984: ‘‘C with Classes’’ was renamed to C++. By then, C++ had acquired virtual functions, function and operator
overloading, references, and the I/O stream, number libraries.

1985: First commercial release of C++

1991: The C++ Programming Language, Second Edition, presenting generic programming using templates and error
handling based on exceptions
1997: The C++ Programming Language, Third Edition [Stroustrup,1997] introduced ISO C++, including
namespaces, dynamic_cast, and many refinements of templates. The standard library added the STL framework
of generic containers and algorithms

2011: ISO C++11 standard was formally approved. In 2012 The first complete C++11 implementations emerged.
2012 Work on future ISO C++ standards (referred to as C++14 and C++17) started

2017: the final standard was published in December 2017.[

Need of C++

C++ is a systems programming language used for developing native applications

Software written in C++ is everywhere: It is in your computer, your phone, your car, and other many electronic devices

Many operating systems have been written in C++ like Windows, Apple’s OS, Linux, and most portable-device OSs..

C++ is used to write device drivers and other software that rely on direct manipulation of hardware under real-time
constraints.

C++ is used to write some critical parts of most widely used systems like Amazon, Google, Facebook.

Many other advanced technologies depends on C++’s performance and reliability in their implementations –
JVM of Java Technologies, Web services framework of Microsoft’s .NET technologies, JavaScript interpreters of
many browsers like Microsoft’s Internet Explorer, Mozilla’s Firefox, Apple’s Safari, and Google’s Chrome.

Games has been another major applications area for C++.

Massive use of C++ in demanding embedded systems, projects for flight control software, automobile
software, engineering computation is done in C++.
C Programming Language C++ Programming Language

C was developed by Dennis Ritchie between the year C++ was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup in 1979 at
1969 and 1973 at AT&T Bell Labs. AT&T Bell Labs
C supports procedural programming. C++ is hybrid language, because it supports
procedural and object oriented programming and
generic programming.
C is a function driven language C++ object driven language

Functions are written and data is passed as Data and functions are encapsulated together in an
parameter in functions. object in C++.
Different operators are supported on built-in data Different operators are supported on built-in data
types types as well as user defined data type
malloc(), calloc(), realloc(), free() functions are used Operators new and delete are used for memory
for memory management management
Features like – namespace, template, exception
handling, reference variable, function and operator
overloading are supported in C++
Total 32 keywords in Standard C Total 63 keywords in C++
First C++ Program :

#include<iostream>

using namespace std;

int main()

{
cout<<"Hello World..";

return 0;
}
Tokens in C++ : In C++, tokens can be defined as the smallest building block of C++ programs that the
compiler understands. Every word in a C++ source code can be considered a token.

Before translation parser does parsing of each statement and finds out tokens. Each token has some pre-
defined meaning in compiler. Compiler translates each token in machine understandable form and
returns .exe file. This .exe file is executable file, which can be executed directly on OS prompt.

Types of tokens :

• Identifiers
• Keywords
• Constants
• Datatypes
• Strings
• Operators
• Escape sequence
Identifier : It is user-defined word. Used to define and declare variable_name, function_name, user_defined
data types etc..

Rules to define identifier:

1. It should start with a alphabet or _ (underscore)

2. White space and special characters are allowed in name of identifier
3. It can have alphabet, digits and _ (underscore)
4. It cannot be a keyword
5. It must be unique (can only be declared once in a namespace)
6. C++ is case sensitive, so be careful.
Keywords : C++ is case sensitive. All keywords are in lower-case.

asm auto bool break case catch char

class const const_cas continue default delete do
t
double dynamic_cast else enum explicit export extern
false float for friend goto if inline
int long mutable namesapce new operator private
protecte public register reinterprete_cas return short signed
d t
sizeof static static_cast struct switch template this
throw true try typedef typeid typename union
unsigned using virtual void volatile wchar_t while
#define MAX 100

Preprocessor directive, works like find and replace. Before compilation all occurrences of word MAX in program
are replaced by 100.

Constants :

const int i = 10;

The value of i will remain unchanged for entire program.

constexpr double area = 3.14 * r * r;

The expression is evaluated at compile time and value is kept in area name, which is constant.

Demonstration: constDemo.cpp
Datatypes:

We use the variables to store values in programs, but the OS has to know what kind of data we want to
store in them, since OS is going to allocate some amount of memory to store a value.

A declaration is statement that introduces a variable name into the program. It specifies a datatype for the
variable

A datatype defines a set of possible values and a set of operations we can perform on those values.

C++ offers a variety of primitive (built-in) datatypes.

 Datatypes supported in C++ : Size and range depends on the system the program is compiled for,

Name Description Size*

Range*
char Character or small integer. 1byte signed: -128 to
127 unsigned: 0 to 255
short int (short) Short Integer. 2bytes signed: -
32768 to 32767

unsigned: 0 to 65535
int Integer. 4bytes
signed: -2147483648 to 2147483647
unsigned: 0 to
4294967295
long int (long) Long integer. 4bytes
signed: -2147483648 to 2147483647
unsigned: 0 to 4294967295
Demonstration : Limits.cppBoolean value.
bool 1byte
true or false
float Floating point number. 4bytes +/- 3.4e
string in C++ :

Variables that can store non-numerical values that are longer than one single character are known as
strings.

The C++ language library provides support for strings through the standard string class. This is not a
primitive type, but it behaves like a primitive types in its most basic usage.

Demonstration: stringDemo.cpp
Operator: C++ has very rich set of operators.

Assignment operator =

The part at the left of the assignment operator (=) is known as the lvalue (left value) and the right
one as the rvalue (right value).
The lvalue has to be a variable whereas the rvalue can be either a constant, a variable, the result of
an operation or any combination of these.
The most important rule when assigning is the right-to-left rule:
The assignment operation always takes place from right to left, and never the other way:
a = b;
This statement assigns to variable a (the lvalue) the value contained in variable b (the rvalue).
The value that was stored until this moment in a is not considered at all in this operation, and in fact
that value is lost.
A property that C++ has is that the assignment operation can be used as the rvalue (or part of an rvalue)
for another assignment operation.
For example: a = 2 + (b = 5);

is equivalent to:

b = 5; a = 2 + b;

that means: first assign 5 to variable b and then assign to a the value 2 plus the result of the previous
assignment of b (i.e. 5), leaving a with a final value of 7.

The following expression is also valid in C++:

a = b = c = 5; It assigns 5 to the all the three variables: a, b and c

Arithmetic operators ( +, -, *, /, % ) : Need 2 operands.

The five arithmetical operations supported by the C++ language are:

+ addition
- subtraction
* multiplication
/ division
% modulo

Compound assignment (+=, -=, *=, /=, %=, >>=, <<=, &=, ^=, |=)

Increment and decrement (++, --)

 Relational and equality operators ( ==, !=, >, >=, <, <= )

Logical operators ( !, &&, || ) Conditional operator or Ternary operator (?:)

Bitwise Operators ( &, |, ^, ~, <> )

Comma operator (,)

Explicit type casting operator sizeof() operator

dot operator (.) Scope resolution operator (::)

• OperatorDemo1.cpp
• OperatorDemo2.cpp
Arrow operator ( -> ) • OperatorDemo3.cpp
• Implicit_Explicit_Casting.cpp
Special Characters and Escape Sequence :

Sequence Meaning
\a Alert.
\b Backspace.
\f Form feed.
\n Newline.
\r Carriage return.
\t Horizontal tab.
\v Vertical tab.
\\ Backslash ( \ ).
\’ Single quote ( ' ).
\" Double quote ( " ).
\? Question mark ( ? ).

Demo: escSequence.cpp
Control Structures in C++:

Condition Structure:
if..else if..else

Loop Structures:

for loop
while loop
do..while loop

Keywords work with loop structure:

break
continue

** Assignments based on condition and loop structures **

Basic assignments on condition and loops :

#1. Print table of a given number.

#2. Take a number from user and print it is prime or not
#3. Take a number from user and print sum of its digits.
#4. Take a number from user and print it is perfect number or not.
#5. Menu driven program for small hotel menu and print total bill amount, when user enter Exit choice.

Basic assignments on nested loops :

#6. Take range of numbers from user and print tables of all numbers within the given range.
#7. Print all prime numbers between given range.
#8. Basic pattern printing programs : separate file is shared.
#9. Menu driven program for small hotel menu with sub menu and print total bill amount, when user enter Exit
choice.
#10. Take a range of numbers and print all perfect numbers within the given range.
Assignment #1: From hackerRank
Given a positive integer , do the following:

If 1 <= n <=9, print the lowercase English word corresponding to the number (e.g., one for , two for , etc.).
If n > 9, print Greater than 9.

Input Format

A single integer, n .

Constraints
1 <= n <= 9

Output Format

If 1<=n<=9, then print the lowercase English word corresponding to the number (e.g., one for 1 , two for 2,
etc.); otherwise, print Greater than 9.
Assignment #2: From hackerRank

Use a for loop to increment a variable through a range.

Input Format

You will be given two positive integers, a and b (a <= b), separated by a newline.

Output Format

For each integer n in the inclusive interval [a, b] :

If 1 <= n <= 9, then print the English representation of it in lowercase. That is "one" for , "two" for , and so on.
Else if n > 9 and it is an even number, then print "even".
Else if n > 9 and it is an odd number, then print "odd".
Assignment #3: Assignment #4:

C++ Program to check whether a number is a C++ Program to check whether a number is a
Perfect Cube or not Perfect Square or not

Input: N = 216 Input: N = 16

Output: Yes Output: Yes
Explanation: Explanation:
As 216 = 6*6*6. As 16 = 4 * 4.
Therefore the cube root of 216 is 6. Therefore the square root of 16 is 4.
Input: N = 100 Input: N = 17
Output: No Output: No
Assignment #5: leetcode

Given a signed 32-bit integer x, return x with its digits reversed. If reversing x causes the value to
go outside the signed 32-bit integer range [-231, 231 - 1], then return 0.

Assume the environment does not allow you to store 64-bit integers (signed or unsigned).

Example 1:
Input: x = 120
Input: x = 123 Output: 21
Output: 321
Example 2:
Constraints:
Input: x = -123
Output: -321 -231 <= x <= 231 - 1
Example 3:
 Functions in C++ :
A function is a group of statements that is executed when it is called from some point of the program.

Functions are used structure our programs in a more modular way.

Gives feature of reusability because of its write once and call multiple times mechanism.

They are written to perform a specific task and are also called as module or sub-program or procedure or
sub-routine.

A function can optionally define input parameters that enable callers to pass arguments into the function.

A function can optionally return a value as output.

Every function should be called directly or indirectly from main(). main() function is entry point function for
C++ program.
type function_name ( parameter1, parameter2, ...) { statements }

where:

• type is the data type specifier of the data returned by the function.
• name is the identifier by which it will be possible to call the function.
• parameters (as many as needed): Each parameter consists of a data type specifier followed
by an identifier, like any regular variable declaration (for example: int x) and which acts within
the function as a regular local variable. They allow to pass arguments to the function when it
is called. The different parameters are separated by commas.

• statements is the function's body. It is a block of statements surrounded by braces { }.

Different forms of functions:

• Function returning nothing and taking no arguments.

• Function return a value and taking no arguments.
• Function returning nothing and taking arguments.
• Function returning a value and taking arguments.

Function declaration, definition and call should match to avoid syntax error.
Global variable:

• Declared outside any structure or class or function.

• Accessible from through out the program.
• Memory allocation is on data segment.

Local variable:

• Declared inside the function.

• Accessibility is within the function only.
• Memory allocation is on stack segment.

Static variable:

• Declared inside class or function.

• Scope depends on how and where it is declared
• Memory allocation is on data segment.
• Initialization is done only one time.
Assignment #6:

Implement pow(x, n), which calculates x raised to the power n (i.e., x n).

Example 1:
Constraints:
Input: x = 2.00000, n = 10
-100.0 < x < 100.0
Output: 1024.00000
-231 <= n <= 231-1 n is an integer.
Example 2:
-104 <= xn <= 104
Input: x = 2.10000, n = 3
Output: 9.26100
Example 3:

Input: x = 2.00000, n = -2
Output: 0.25000
Explanation: 2-2 = 1/22 = 1/4 = 0.25
 Assignment #7: hackerRank
Write a function int max_of_four(int a, int b, int c, int d) which returns the maximum of the four arguments it receives.

Input Format

Input will contain four integers - , one per line.

Output Format

Return the greatest of the four integers.

Sample Input

3
4
6
5
Sample Output

6
Assignment #8: Hackerearth
A number n is said to be special if the sum of its digits is divisible by
4. Constraints

For a given integer a, find a number n such that: 1<=T<=10^5

1<=a<=10^3
• n is a special number
• n >= a
• n is minimum possible Sample Input
2
Input format 432
99
• The first line contains an integer T Sample Output
denoting the number of test cases. 435
• For each test case: 103
The first line contains an integer a.

Output format
For each test case, print a number n that satisfies the above
conditions in a new line.
Pointers in C++:

It is a variable, which holds address of another variable. The address should be from same process's address space.

Syntax: int *ptr;

Operators used with pointer: addressOf(&) and valueAt operators(*)

Usages:
1. To return more than one values from function. (call by address)
2. To store the address returned by malloc at run time.
3. Array is a constant pointer.
4. To access a variable which has been declared outside the function (declared in caller() etc)
5. To write fast and efficient programs.

Pointer comes with a lot of responsibility.