MODULE - 3

Chapter – 6
Line Balancing

1
Contents
• Introduction
• Methods
– Largest candidate rule,
– Kilbridge and Wester method
– Ranked Positional Weights method
– Numerical problems
• Mixed Model line balancing
• Computerized line balancing methods
Course Outcome

• You will be able to:

• Apply different methods to solve problems on

balancing the assembly lines.

COs/POs PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12
CO3 3 3 3 3 2 - - 2 - 2 - -
Line Balancing - Introduction
• Product layouts or assembly lines are used for ______
production.

• To attain the required output rate as efficiently as possible,

jobs (amount of work) are broken down into their smallest
indivisible portions, called work elements.

• Work elements are so small that they cannot be performed by

more than one worker or at more than one workstation. But it
is common for one worker to perform several work elements
as the product passes through his or her workstation.
Line Balancing - Introduction
• For the products to flow smoothly through the assembly line,
the work elements are to be grouped into workstations.
• A workstation is any area along the assembly line that
requires at least one worker or one machine.

• If each workstation on the assembly line takes the same

amount of time to perform the work elements that have been
assigned, then products will move successively from
workstation to workstation with no need for a product to wait
or a worker to be idle.

• The process of equalizing the amount of work at each

workstation is called line balancing.
Line Balancing - Introduction
• For assembly-line balancing, two constraints are to be
overcome:
• Precedence requirements and Cycle time restrictions.
• Precedence requirements are physical restrictions on the
order in which operations are performed on the assembly
line.
• Precedence requirements are often expressed in the form of a
precedence diagram.
• Precedence diagram is a network, with work elements
represented by circles or nodes and precedence relationships
represented by directed line segments connecting the nodes.
An example of a precedence diagram:
A complete work consists of 5 elements which are to be completed in the order shown.

7
Line Balancing - Introduction
• Cycle time (the other restriction on line balancing), refers to
the maximum amount of time the product is allowed to spend
at each workstation if the targeted production rate is to be
reached.
• The cycle time also establishes the output rate of a line.
• For instance, if the cycle time is two minutes, units will come
off the end of the line at the rate of one every two minutes.
• Desired cycle time is calculated by dividing the time available
for production by the number of units scheduled to be
produced:
Line Balancing - Introduction
• Example:
• A company wanted to produce 120 units in an 8-hour day. The
cycle time necessary to achieve the production quota is

Cycle time can also be viewed as the time between completed

items rolling off the assembly line.
Line Balancing - Introduction

• The actual cycle time, Ca, is the maximum workstation time

on the line.
• It differs from the desired cycle time when the production
quota does not match the maximum output attainable by the
system.
• The required production quota or rate does not match the
maximum output attainable, if the time required for one work
element is too large.
• The required quota or rate can be revised by setting up
parallel stations for the bottleneck element.
Line Balancing - Introduction
• Theoretical Minimum Number of Workstations (N): is the
number of workstations (into which elements are grouped)
required to achieve the specified rate of output.
• The Line Efficiency: is the ability of an assembly line to meet
the required rate of output.
Line Balancing - Introduction
• Balance Delay: is the total idle time of the line. It is computed
as (1-Line efficiency).
• Efficiency and balance delay are usually expressed as
percentages.
• The line balancing algorithm (steps):
• 1. Draw and label a precedence diagram.
• 2. Calculate the desired cycle time required for the line.
• 3. Calculate the theoretical minimum number of workstations.
• 4. Group elements into workstations, recognizing cycle time
and precedence constraints.
• 5. Calculate the efficiency of the line.
• 6. Determine if the theoretical minimum number of
workstations or an acceptable efficiency level has been
reached. If not, go back to step 4.
Line Balancing
• A certain product is made from a mixture of dried fruit, food
coloring, preservatives, and glucose. The product is pressed
out into a thin sheet, imprinted with various shapes, rolled,
and packaged. The precedence and time requirements for
each step in the assembly process are given below. To meet
demand, the company needs to produce 6000 strips every 40-
hour week. Design an assembly line with the fewest number
of workstations that will achieve the production quota
without violating precedence constraints.
Line Balancing
• Solution:
• Draw the precedence diagram
• The precedence diagram is completed by adding the time
requirements beside each node.
Line Balancing
• Solution:
• Calculate the desired cycle time and the theoretical minimum
number of workstations:
Line Balancing
• Solution:
• Group the elements into workstations so that the sum of the
element times at each workstation is less than or equal to the
desired cycle time of 0.4 minute.
Line Balancing
• Solution:
• The Line Efficiency & Balance Delay
Line Balancing
• Example
• A precedence table is given below for a process with 5 tasks,
their immediate predecessors and their task times:
• Workers are known to work 8 hours in one shift, and there are
2 shifts per day dedicated to this job. The daily output needed
is 320 pieces.
Task Immediate Task time (minutes)
label predecessor(s)
a – 2.0
b a 3.0
c – 1.5
d b, c 2.5
e d 1.0
∑ = 10
Line Balancing - Introduction
• Precedence diagram
a b d e
2.0 3.0 2.5 1.0

c
1.5

• Cycle time = (operating time per day) / (desired output per day)
• = (2 shifts × 8 hrs × 60 mins) / 320 pieces = 3 min.

• Theoretical Min number of workstations,

• N = (Sum of all the task times) / (Cycle time)
• = 10/3 = 3.33 = 4 work stations
Line Balancing - Introduction
• Grouping of elements into workstations

Work- Elements Cycle time, Idle time

station grouped min. (minutes)
1 a 3.0 1.0
2 c 3.0 1.5
3 b 3.0 0.0
4 d 3.0 2.5
5 e 3.0 2.0
∑ 7.0

• Hence, actual number of workstations required = 5

Line Balancing

Compute the line efficiency and Balance delay.

Line efficiency, E = (Sum of work element times) / (Actual number

of workstations * cycle time)

E = 10.0/5*3 = .6666 or 66.7%

Balance delay, d = 1 – 0.666 = 33.3%

Line Balancing
• Example:
• Consider the following problem of assembly line balancing:

Task A B C D E F G H
Imm. predecessor - A B C D E F G
Task time (min) 0.9 0.4 0.6 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.7 1.1

• Assuming that 55 minutes per hour are productive, compute

the cycle time needed to obtain 50 units per hour as the
output.
Line Balancing
• Cycle time = Productive time per hour/Demand per hour
• = 55 minute/hour/50 units/hour
• = 1.1 minutes per product.

• Theoretical minimum number of workstations

• N = (Sum of all the task times) / (Cycle time)
• = (4.6)/1.1 = 4.18 workstations

• Line efficiency, E = 4.6 / (5*1.1) = 0.8363 = 83.63%

• Balance delay, d = 1 - 0.8363 = 0.1637 = 16.37%

Line Balancing
• Group the elements into workstations:
Unassigned Task
Grouping of Sum of time of
Workstation Task Task Time
tasks Task times workstation (idle
time)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)= 1.1 - (5)
(I) A A 0.9 0.9 0.2
B 0.4
(II)(II) B, C 1.0 0.1
C 0.6
E 0.3
(III)(III)(III) D, E, F D 0.2 0.9 0.2
F 0.4
(IV) G G 0.7 0.7 0.4
(V) H H 1.1 1.1 0
Total IT 0.9

• Hence, the actual number of workstations = 5

Line Balancing - Methods
• Largest-candidate rule
• Step 1. List all elements in descending order of Te value, largest Te
at the top of the list.
• Step 2. To assign elements to the first workstation, start at the
top of the list and work down, selecting the first feasible element
for placement at the station. A feasible element is one that
satisfies the precedence requirements and does not cause the
sum of the Te values at the station to exceed the cycle time Cd
• Step 3. Continue the process of assigning work elements to the
station as in step 2 until no further elements can be added
without exceeding Tc.
• Step 4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 for the other stations in the line
until all the elements have been assigned.
Line Balancing - Methods
• Largest-candidate rule
• Twelve work elements are listed below with their elemental
time and precedence relationship. Assign the elements to
workstations to balance the assembly line and find the
necessary parameters. Production demand will be 120,000
units/yr. The plant works 50 weeks/yr and 40 h/week.
Line Balancing - Methods
• Draw the precedence diagram
Line Balancing - Methods
• Compute the cycle time, theoretical minimum number of
workstations:
• Cycle time = Production Time available / Units required
•
• Cycle time = (40 h/w * 50 w/year) / 120000
• = 1 min/unit
• Theoretical minimum number of workstations

• = (Sum of work element times) / (Desired cycle time)

• = 4.0/1.0 = 4 workstations
Line Balancing - Methods
• Arrange the work elements according to the largest elemental
time.
Line Balancing - Methods
• Group the elements into workstations such that the cycle time
precedence requirements are met.

30
Line Balancing - Methods
Line Balancing - Methods
• Compute the line efficiency and Balance delay.

• Line efficiency, E = (Sum of work element times) / (Actual

number of workstations * cycle time)

• E = 4.0/4*1 = 1 or 100%

Limitation of LCR: Elements at the end of the precedence diagram

might be the first candidates to be considered, simply because
their values are large.
32
Line Balancing - Methods
• Kilbridge and Wester’s method
• It is a heuristic procedure which selects work elements for
assignment to stations according to their position in the
precedence diagram.
• Limitation of LCR is overcome.
• Procedure:
• Step 1. Construct the precedence diagram so that the nodes
representing work elements of identical precedence are arranged
vertically in columns.
• Step 2. List the elements in order of their columns, column I at the
top of the list. If an element can be located in more than one
column, list all columns by the element to show the transferability
of the element.
• Step 3. To assign elements to workstations, start with the column I
elements. Continue the assignment procedure in order of column
number until the cycle time is reached (Cd).
Line Balancing - Methods
• Example of K & W method:
• The following list defines the precedence relationships
& element times for a new model toy:

i. Construct the precedence diagram.

II. If the ideal cycle is 1.5 min., what is the theoretical minimum
number of stations required to minimize the balance delay?
III. Compute the balance delay.

Use K&W method.

Line Balancing
Line Balancing
Line Balancing
Line Balancing - Methods
• K & W method – Example
Line Balancing - Methods
• Example of K&W method:
• Arrangement of elements into columns:
40
41
42
Line Balancing - Methods
• Ranked positional weights method
• The ranked positional weights procedure was introduced by
Helgeson and Birnie in 1961.
• In a sense, it combines the strategies of the largest-candidate
rule and Kilbridge and Wester’s method.
• A ranked positional weight value (call it the RPW for short) is
computed for each element.
• The RPW takes account of both the Te value of the element
and its position in the precedence diagram.
• Then, the elements are assigned to work stations in the
general order of their RPW values.
Line Balancing - Methods
• Ranked positional weights method – Procedure
• Step 1. Calculate the RPW for each element by summing
the element’s Te together with the Te values for all the
elements that follow it in the arrow chain of the
precedence diagram.
Step 2. List the elements in the order of their RPW,
largest RPW at the top of the list. For convenience,
include the Te value and immediate predecessors for
each element.
Step 3. Assign elements to stations according to RPW,
avoiding precedence constraint and time-cycle
violations.
Line Balancing - Methods
• Ranked positional weights method – Example
• Draw the precedence diagram

46
Computerized Line Balancing Methods
• For line balancing, computer programs have been
developed based on several of the heuristic
approaches.
• Computer line balancing algorithms are normally
structured to explore a wide range of alternative
allocations of elements to workstations.
• COMSOAL (Computer Method of Sequencing
Operations for Assembly Lines)
• CALB (Computer Assembly Line Balancing or
Computer-Aided Line Balancing)
• ALPACA (Assembly Line Planning and Control
Activity)
Computerized Line Balancing Methods
• Procedure of COMSOAL
• Step 1.
• Construct list A, showing all work elements in one column and
the total number of elements that immediately precede each
element in an adjacent column. Note that these types of data
would be quite easy to compile and manipulate by the computer.
• Step 2.
• Construct list B, showing all elements from list A that have no
immediate predecessors.
• Step 3.
• Select at random one of the elements from list B. The computer
would be programmed to perform this random selection process.
The only constraint is that the element selected must not cause
the cycle time Tc to be exceeded.
Computerized Line Balancing Methods
• Procedure of COMSOAL
• Step 4
• Eliminate the element selected in step 3 from lists A and B and
update both lists if necessary. Updating may be needed
because the selected element was probably an immediate
predecessor for some other elements(s). Hence, there may be
changes in the number of immediate predecessors for certain
elements in list A; and there may now be some new elements
having no immediate predecessors that should be added to list
B.
Computerized Line Balancing Methods
• Procedure of COMSOAL
• Step 5
• Again select one of the elements from list B which is feasible
for cycle time.
• Step 6
• Repeat steps 4 and 5 until all elements have been allocated to
stations within the Tc constraint.
• Step 7
• Retain the current solution and repeat steps 1 through 6 to
attempt to determine an improved solution. If an improved
solution is obtained, it should be retained.
Computerized Line Balancing Methods
• Example:
Computerized Line Balancing Methods
• Example:
• List A
Computerized Line Balancing Methods
• Example:
• List B
Computerized Line Balancing Methods
• Example:
• List A after step 3
Computerized Line Balancing Methods
• Example:
• List B after step 3
Computerized Line Balancing Methods
• Example:
• A Possible Solution
57
 MODULE - 3

Chapter – 5
Flexible Manufacturing Systems
(FMSs)

58
Contents
• Fundamentals of Group Technology and Flexible
Manufacturing Systems
• Types of FMS
• FMS components – Processing stations; Material
handling and storage system - applications, benefits;
computer control systems; Human element
• FMS planning and design issues
• Automated Storage and Retrieval Systems (AS/RS)
• Automatic parts identification systems and data
capture
Course Outcome

• You will be able to:

• Characterize (demonstrate the knowledge of) various

elements or sub systems of FMSs.

COs/POs PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12
CO3 3 3 3 3 2 - - 2 - 2 - -
Fundamentals of Group
Technology
• Group technology is a manufacturing philosophy in which
similar parts are identified and grouped together to take
advantage of their similarities in design and production.
• Similar parts are arranged into part families, where each part
family possesses similar design and/or manufacturing
characteristics.
• The processing of each member of a given family is similar,
and this will result in manufacturing efficiencies.
• The efficiencies are generally achieved by arranging various
production equipment into cells (machine groups) to facilitate
work flow.
• Organizing the production equipment into machine cells,
where each cell specializes in the production of a part family,
is called cellular manufacturing.
Fundamentals of Group
Technology
• Requirements for implementing group technology.

• Identifying the part families.

• If the plant makes 10,000 different parts, reviewing all of the
part drawings and grouping the parts into families is a
substantial and time consuming task.
• Rearranging production machines into machine cells.
• It is time-consuming and costly to plan and accomplish this
rearrangement, and the machines are not producing during
the changeover.
Fundamentals of Group
Technology
• Benefits of Group Technology

• GT promotes standardization of tooling, fixturing, and setups.

• Material handling is reduced because the distances within a
machine cell are much shorter than within the entire factory.
• Process planning and production scheduling are simplified.
• Setup times are reduced, resulting in lower manufacturing
lead times.
• Work-in-process is reduced.
• Worker satisfaction usually improves when workers
collaborate in a GT cell.
• Higher quality work is accomplished.
Fundamentals of Group
Technology
• Part Family
• A part family is a collection of parts that are similar either in
geometric shape and size or in the processing steps required
in their manufacture.

Two parts of identical shape and size but different manufacturing

requirements:
(a) 1,000,000 pc/yr, tolerance = 0.010 mm., material = 1015 CR steel, nickel
plate;
(b) 100 pc/yr, tolerance = 0.001 mm., material = 18-8 stainless steel.
Fundamentals of Group
Technology

A family of parts with similar manufacturing process requirements but

different design attributes. All parts are machined from cylindrical stock
by turning; some parts require drilling and/or milling.
Flexible Manufacturing Systems

• To satisfy the demand of customers for a wide variety of

parts / products, the manufacturers' “production” concept
has moved away from “mass” to small “batch” type of
production.
• Batch production offers more flexibility in product
manufacturing.
• To cater this need, Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS) have
been evolved.
• An FMS combines microelectronics and mechanical
engineering to bring the economies of the scale to batch
work.
• A central (online) computer controls the machine tools, other
work stations, and the transfer of components and tooling.
Flexible Manufacturing Systems
• A flexible manufacturing system (FMS) is a highly automated
GT machine cell, consisting of one or more processing stations
(usually CNC machine tools), interconnected by an automated
material handling and storage system and controlled by a
distributed computer system.
• FMS is called flexible since it is capable of processing a variety
of different part styles simultaneously at the various
workstations in response to the changing demand patterns.
• An FMS is designed to produce parts (or products) within a
defined range of styles, sizes, and processes.
• In other words, an FMS is capable of producing a single part
family or a limited range of part families.
Flexible Manufacturing Systems

68
Flexible Manufacturing Systems
• Flexibility
• Flexibility is an attribute that applies to both manual and
automated systems. In manual systems, the human workers
are often the enablers of the system’s flexibility.
• In order to be flexible, a manufacturing system must possess
three capabilities:
• The ability to identify the different incoming part or product
styles processed by the system,
• Quick changeover of operating instructions, and
• Quick changeover of physical setup.
Flexible Manufacturing Systems
• Flexibility
• An automated manufacturing system should satisfy the
following four tests of flexibility:

• Part-variety test. Can the system process different part or

product styles in a mixed-model (non-batch) mode?

• Schedule-change test. Can the system readily accept changes

in production schedule, that is, changes in part mix and/or
production quantities?

• Error-recovery test. Can the system recover gracefully from

equipment malfunctions and breakdowns, so that production
is not completely disrupted?
Flexible Manufacturing Systems
• Flexibility
• New-part test. Can new part designs be introduced into the
existing part mix with relative ease if their features qualify
them as being members of the part family for which the
system was designed? Also, can design changes be made in
existing parts without undue challenge to the system?

• If the answer to all of these questions is “yes” for a given

manufacturing system, then the system is flexible.
Types of FMSs
• Each FMS is designed for a specific application, that is,
a specific family of parts and processes. Therefore,
each FMS is custom-engineered and unique.
• Flexible manufacturing systems can be distinguished according
to the kinds of operations they perform: processing operations
or assembly operations.
• Flexible machining systems with multiple stations that process
rotational parts are less common than systems that process
nonrotational parts.
• Two other ways to classify flexible manufacturing systems are by
number of machines and level of flexibility.
Types of FMSs
• Number of Machines
• Based on number of processing machines, FMSs can be
• (1) Single-machine cell
• (2) Flexible manufacturing cell
• (3) Flexible manufacturing system.

• A single-machine cell consists of one CNC machining center

combined with a parts-storage system for unattended
operation (fig. next slide)
• Completed parts are periodically unloaded from the parts-
storage unit, and raw work parts are loaded into it.
• The cell can be designed to operate in a batch mode, a flexible
mode, or a combination of the two.
74
Types of FMSs
• When operated in a batch mode, the machine processes parts
of a single style in specified lot sizes and is then changed over
to process a batch of the next part style.
• When operated in a flexible mode, the system satisfies three of
the four flexibility tests.
• It is capable of
• processing different part styles (test 1)
• responding to changes in production schedule (test 2)
• accepting new part introductions (test 4).

• Test (3), error recovery, cannot be satisfied because if the single

machine breaks down, production stops.
Types of FMSs
• A flexible manufacturing cell (FMC) consists of two or three
processing workstations (typically CNC machining centers or
turning centers) plus a parts-handling system.
• The parts-handling system is connected to a load/unload
station. The handling system usually includes a limited parts-
storage capacity.
• A flexible manufacturing cell satisfies the four flexibility tests.

• A flexible manufacturing system (FMS) has four or more

processing stations connected mechanically by a common
parts-handling system and electronically by a distributed
computer system.
• An important distinction between an FMS and an FMC is the
number of machines: an FMC has two or three machines, while
an FMS has four or more.
Types of FMSs

A flexible manufacturing cell consisting of three identical processing stations (CNC

machining centers), a load/unload station, and a parts-handling system.
Types of FMSs
• Comparison of the three types:
Types of FMSs
• Based on Level of Flexibility, flexible manufacturing systems
are classified as
• (1) Dedicated FMSs, and (2) Random-order FMSs

• A dedicated FMS is designed to produce a limited variety of

part styles.
• The product design is considered stable, so the system can be
designed with a certain amount of process specialization to
make the operations more efficient.
• The machines are designed for the specific processes required
to make the limited part family, thus increasing the production
rate of the system.
• In some instances, the machine sequence may be identical or
nearly identical for all parts processed, so a transfer line may
be appropriate.
Types of FMSs
• A random-order FMS is more appropriate for the following
circumstances:
• (1) the part family is large, (2) there are substantial variations in
part configurations, (3) new part designs are introduced into
the system and engineering changes will be made to parts
currently produced, and (4) the production schedule is subject
to change from day-to-day.
• For the above conditions, the random-order FMS must be more
flexible than the dedicated FMS.
• It is equipped with general-purpose machines to deal with the
product variations and is capable of processing parts in various
sequences (random order).
• A more sophisticated computer control system is required for
this FMS type.
Types of FMSs
• Comparison of the two types:
Components of FMSs
• The three basic components of a flexible manufacturing
system are: (1) processing workstations, (2) material handling
and storage system, and (3) computer control system.
• In addition, even though an FMS is highly automated, people
are required to manage and operate the system.
• Functions typically performed by humans include:
• (1) loading raw work parts into the system
• (2) unloading finished parts (or assemblies) from the system
• (3) changing and setting tools
• (4) performing equipment maintenance and repair
• (5) performing NC part programming
• (6) programming and operating the computer system
• (7) managing the system.
Components of FMSs
• The processing or assembly equipment used in an FMC or FMS
depends on the type of work accomplished by the system.
• The types of workstations that are usually found in a FMS are:
– Load/unload stations: The load/unload station is the physical interface
between the FMS and the rest of the factory. It is where raw work parts
enter the system and finished parts exit the system.
– Machining stations: The workstations used are predominantly CNC
machine tools. Most common are the machining centers.
– Assembly workstations: Industrial robots are often used as the automated
workstations in flexible assembly systems.
– Inspection stations: Inspection can be incorporated into a flexible
manufacturing system, either by including an inspection operation at a
processing workstation or by including a station specifically designed for
inspection.
– Other processing stations: Cleaning parts and/or pallet fixtures, central
coolant delivery systems for the entire FMS, centralized chip-removal
systems often installed below floor level, etc.
Components of FMSs
• Material Handling and Storage System
• This component in a flexible manufacturing system performs the
following functions:

• Random independent movement of work parts between stations:

Parts must be moved from any machine in the system to any other
machine to provide various routing alternatives for different parts
and to make machine substitutions when certain stations are busy
or broken down.
• Handling a variety of work part configurations.
• Temporary storage.
• Convenient access for loading and unloading work parts.
• Compatibility with computer control.
Components of FMSs
• The material handling functions in an FMS are accomplished by:
• Primary handling system
• The basic layouts are used for moving work parts between
workstations in the system.

Sl No Layout Configuration Typical Material Handling System

1 In-line layout In-line transfer system; Conveyor system
Rail-guided vehicle system
Overhead rail-guided vehicle system with
robotic part handling
2 Loop layout Conveyor system; In-floor towline carts
3 Open field layout AGVSs; In-floor towline carts
4 Robot-centered layout Industrial robots
Components of FMSs
• Secondary handling system
• It consists of transfer devices, automatic pallet changers, and
similar mechanisms located at the workstations in the FMS.
• The typical activities include:
– Transfer work parts from the primary system to the machine tool or
other processing station.
– Position the work parts with sufficient accuracy and repeatability at the
workstation for processing.
– Provide buffer storage of work parts at each workstation, if required.
– Reorient the work parts, if necessary, to present the surface that is to
be processed.
• In some FMS installations, there will be no secondary handling
systems since the positioning and registration requirements at
the individual workstations are satisfied by the primary work-
handling system.
Components of FMSs
• Computer Control System

• Computers are required to control the automated and semi-

automated equipment and to participate in the overall
coordination and management of the manufacturing system.

• A typical FMS computer control system consists of a central

computer and microcomputers controlling the individual
machines and other components.

• The central computer coordinates the activities of the

components to achieve smooth overall operation of the system.
Components of FMSs
• Functions Performed by Computer Control System

• Workstation control.
• Distribution of control instructions to workstations.
• Production control.
• Shuttle control.
• Tool control.
• Performance monitoring and reporting.
• Diagnostics.
Applications of FMS
• FMS technology is most widely applied in machining
operations. Other applications include sheet metal press
working and assembly.
• The applications of FMS are realized in the following areas:
• Machining
• Assembly
• Sheet-metal press working
• Forging
• Plastic injection moulding
• Welding
• Textile machinery manufacture
• Semiconductor component manufacture
Advantages / Benefits of FMS
• Successfully implemented FMS offers several advantages:
• Increased machine utilization - Flexible manufacturing
systems achieve a higher average utilization than machines in
a conventional job or batch machine shop.
• Reasons for this include (1) 24 hr per day operation, (2)
automatic tool changing of machine tools, (3) automatic pallet
changing at workstations, (4) queues of parts at stations, and
(5) dynamic scheduling of production that compensates for
irregularities.
• Fewer machines required: Because of higher machine
utilization, fewer machines are required compared to a batch
production plant of equivalent capacity.
• Reduction in factory floor space: Compared to a batch
production plant of equivalent capacity, an FMS generally
requires less floor area.
Advantages / Benefits of FMS
• Greater responsiveness to change: An FMS improves
response capability to part design changes, introduction of
new parts, changes in production schedule and product mix,
machine breakdowns, and cutting tool failures.
• Reduced inventory requirements: Because different parts are
processed together rather than separately in batches, work-
in-process is less than in batch production. For the same
reason, final parts inventories are also reduced compared to
make-to-stock production systems.
• Lower manufacturing lead times: Closely correlated with
reduced work-in-process is the time spent in process by the
parts. This means faster customer deliveries.
• Reduced direct labor requirements and higher labor
productivity: Higher production rates and lower reliance on
direct labor mean greater productivity per labor hour.
Limitations of FMS
• Very high capital investment is required to implement a FMS.
• Acquiring, training and maintaining the knowledgeable labour
pool requires heavy investment.
• Fixtures can sometimes cost much more with FMS and software
development costs could be as much as 12 –20% of the total
expense.
• Tool performance and condition monitoring can also be
expensive since tool variety could undermine efficiency.
• Complex design estimating methodology requires optimizing the
degree of flexibility and finding a trade-off between flexibility
and specialization.
FMS Planning and Implementation Issues
• For the implementation of an FMS, it is important for a company
for a thorough planning and design since the all the resources -
machines, tools, pallets, parts, and people are to be managed
properly.

• Planning and Design Issues: The initial phase of FMS planning

must consider the parts that will be produced by the system.
The issues include:

• Part family considerations.

• Processing requirements.
• Physical characteristics of the work parts.
• Production volume.
FMS Planning and Implementation Issues

• After the part family, production volumes, and similar part issues
have been decided, the design of the system is initiated.
Important factors that must be specified in FMS design include:

• Types of workstations
• Variations in process routings and FMS layout
• Material handling system
• Work-in-process and storage capacity
• Tooling
• Pallet fixtures
FMS Planning and Implementation Issues
• Operations Management Issues
• Once the FMS is installed, its resources must be optimized to
meet production requirements and achieve operational
objectives related to profit, quality, and customer satisfaction.
The operational problems that must be addressed include the
following:

• Scheduling and dispatching

• Machine loading
• Part routing
• Part grouping
• Tool management
• Pallet and fixture allocation
Automated Guided Vehicle System (AGVS)
• Automated guided vehicles (AGVs) are modem material-
handling and conveying systems that are more appropriate for
FMS applications and automation.
• An AGV is a computer controlled, driverless vehicle used for
transporting materials from point-to-point in a manufacturing
set up.
• AGVs are powered by means of on-board batteries that allow
operation for several hours between recharging.
Automated Guided Vehicle System (AGVS)
• Technology: About 90% of all AGVs are wire-guided vehicles.

• The pathways are generally made up using wires embedded in

the floor or reflective paint on the floor surface. Guidance is
achieved by sensors on the vehicles that can follow the guide
wires or paint.
• AGVs can carry loads or tow objects behind them in trailers to
which they can autonomously attach. The trailers can be used to
move raw materials or finished product.
• Some AGVs use forklifts to lift objects for storage.
• AGVs are employed in nearly every industry, including, pulp,
paper, metals, newspaper, and general manufacturing.
Automated Guided Vehicle System (AGVS)
• The various types of AGVs are:
• Driverless trains
• AGVs pallet trucks
• AGVs unit load carriers

• Driverless trains consists of a towing vehicle (which is the AGV)

that pulls one or more trailers to form a train.

• It was the first type of AGVS to be introduced and is still

popular. It is useful in applications where heavy payloads must
be moved large distances in warehouses or factories with
intermediate pickup and drop-off points along the route.
Automated Guided Vehicle System (AGVS)
• Driverless train
Automated Guided Vehicle System (AGVS)
• Automated guided pallet trucks are used to move palletized
loads along predetermined routes.

• In a typical application, the vehicle is backed into the loaded

pallet by a human worker who steers the truck and uses its forks
to elevate the load slightly.
• The worker then drives the pallet truck to the guide-path,
programs its destination, and the vehicle proceeds automatically
to the destination for unloading.
• The capacity of an AG pallet truck ranges up to 3000 kg, and
some trucks are capable of handling two pallets rather than one.
• A more recent introduction related to the pallet truck is the
forklift AGV. This vehicle can achieve significant vertical
movement of its forks to reach loads on shelves.
Automated Guided Vehicle System (AGVS)
• AG Pallet Truck
Automated Guided Vehicle System (AGVS)

• AGVS unit load carriers:

• This type of AGVS is used to move unit loads from one station to
another station.
• These are often equipped for automatic loading and unloading by
means of powered rollers, moving belts, mechanized lift platforms
or other devices.
• Variations of the unit load carrier include light-load AGVs and
assembly line AGVs.
• Light-load guided vehicles are designed to move small loads (single
parts, small baskets or tote pans of parts, etc.) through plants of
limited size engaged in light manufacturing.
• The assembly line AGVS is designed to carry a partially completed
subassembly through a sequence of assembly workstations to
build the product.
Automated Guided Vehicle System (AGVS)
• AGVS unit load carriers:

103
Automated Guided Vehicle System (AGVS)
• AGVS unit load carriers:

104
Automated Guided Vehicle System (AGVS)
• To operate any automated guided vehicle system successfully,
the following functions are to be performed:
• Vehicle guidance and routing
• Traffic control and safety
• System management

• The term guidance system refers to the method by which the

AGVS pathways are defined and the vehicle follows the
pathways.
• To define the pathways along the floor, two methods are in use:
embedded guide wires and paint strips.
• The wires are usually embedded in a small channel cut into the
surface of the floor (channel – 3 -4mm wide & 10-12 mm deep).
Automated Guided Vehicle System (AGVS)
• The guide wire is connected to a frequency generator, which
emits a low-voltage, low-frequency signal in the range 1–15 kHz.
• This induces a magnetic field along the pathway that can be
followed by sensors on board each vehicle.
Automated Storage & Retrieval System (ASRS)
• Mechanized and automated storage systems are used to reduce or
eliminate the amount of human intervention required to operate
the system.
• In less automated systems, a human operator is required to handle
each storage/retrieval transaction.
• In highly automated systems, loads are entered or retrieved under
computer control, with no human participation except to input
data to the computer.

• Automated storage systems divide into two general types:

• (1) fixed-aisle automated storage/retrieval systems, and (2)
carousel storage systems.
• A fixed-aisle AS/RS consists of a rack structure for storing loads
and a storage/retrieval machine whose motions are linear (x, y, z
motions), as pictured(next slide).
Automated Storage & Retrieval System (ASRS)
• A fixed-aisle AS/RS

One aisle of a unit load automated

storage/retrieval system
Automated Storage & Retrieval System (ASRS)
• Fixed-aisle AS/RS:
• A fixed-aisle automated storage/retrieval system (AS/RS) is a
storage system consisting of one or more aisles of storage racks
attended by storage/retrieval machines, usually one S/R
machine per aisle.
• The S/R machines (sometimes referred to as cranes) are used to
deliver materials to the storage racks and to retrieve materials
from the racks.
• Each AS/RS aisle has one or more input/output stations where
materials are delivered into the storage system and withdrawn
from it.
• The input/output stations are called pickup-and-deposit stations
(P&D stations) in AS/RS terminology.
Automated Storage & Retrieval System (ASRS)
• Types of AS/RS:
• Unit load AS/RS
• Typically a large automated system designed to handle unit loads stored
on pallets or in other standard containers.
• The system is computer controlled, and the S/R machines are automated
and designed to handle the unit load containers.

• Deep-lane AS/RS
• It is a high-density unit load storage system used for storing large
quantities of stock.
• The system stores ten or more loads in a single rack, one load behind the
next.
• Each rack is designed for “flow-through,” with input on one side and
output on the other side.
• Loads are picked up from one side of the rack by an S/R-type machine
designed for retrieval, and another machine inputs loads on the entry side
Automated Storage & Retrieval System (ASRS)
• Types of AS/RS:
• Miniload AS/RS
• This storage system is used to handle small loads (individual
parts) that are contained in bins or drawers in the storage
system.
• The S/R machine is designed to retrieve the bin and deliver it to
a P&D station at the end of the aisle so that individual items can
be withdrawn from the bins.
• The bin or drawer must then be returned to its location in the
system.
• A miniload AS/RS is generally smaller than a unit load AS/RS and
is often enclosed for security of the items stored.
Automated Storage & Retrieval System (ASRS)
• Types of AS/RS:
• Man-on-board S/RS
• It is also called man-aboard. In this system, a human operator
rides on the carriage of the S/R machine.
• The worker picks individual items directly at their storage
locations.

• Automated item retrieval system

• Vertical lift modules

Automated Storage & Retrieval System (ASRS)
• A carousel system uses storage baskets attached to a chain-
driven conveyor that revolves around an oval track loop to
deliver the baskets to a load/unload station.
Automatic Parts Identification System
• Automatic identification and data capture (AIDC) refers to the
methods of automatically identifying objects, collecting data
about them, and entering them directly into computer systems,
without human involvement.
• There are three specific components that comprise
technologies for Automatic Identification and Data Capture:
• Data encoder—data must be coded into a machine-readable
format compatible to the requirements of AIDC. A label or tag
containing the encoded data is attached to the item to be
identified
• Machine reader or scanner—this is used to read the encoded
data, typically converting it into the form of an electrical
analogue signal.
• Data decoder—this transforms the electrical signal into digital
data and finally back into the original alphanumeric characters.
Automatic Parts Identification System
• Categories of AIDC technologies:
• Optical
• Most of these technologies use high-contrast graphical symbols
that can be interpreted by an optical scanner.
• They include linear (one-dimensional) and two dimensional bar
codes, optical character recognition, and machine vision.
• Electromagnetic
• The important AIDC technology in this group is radio frequency
identification (RFID), which uses a small electronic tag capable
of holding more data than a bar code.
• Touch techniques
• These include touch screens and button memory.
Automatic Parts Identification System
• Categories of AIDC technologies:
• Magnetic
• These technologies encode data magnetically, similar to
recording tape.
• The two important techniques in this category are (a) magnetic
stripe, widely used in plastic credit cards and bank access cards,
and (b) magnetic ink character recognition, widely used in the
banking industry for check processing.
• Smart card:
• This term refers to small plastic cards (the size of a credit card)
imbedded with microchips capable of containing large amounts
of information.
• Other terms used for this technology include chip card and
integrated circuit card.
Automatic Parts Identification System
• Bar Code Technology
• A barcode is a square or
rectangular image consisting
of a series of parallel black
lines and white spaces of
varying widths that can be
read by a scanner.
• A barcode represents the
line of numbers printed
underneath it with a pattern
of black and white bars.