CHAPTER 1

BASIC ELECTRICAL
CIRCUIT VARIABLES AND
ELEMENTS

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 1.1. INTRODUCTION

o Electric Circuit: is an interconnection of electrical

elements in which current flows.
o All electric circuit consists of
A voltage source
A Load
A conductor

fig 1. simple electric circuit

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 1.2. BASIC CIRCUIT VARIABLES

 Charge: is an electrical property of the atomic particles

of which matter consists, measured in coulombs (C).
-A charge on electron is negative and is equal to where as
proton carries a positive charge of the same magnitude.
• Voltage: is the energy required to move a unit charge
through an element, measured in volts (V).
V=dw/dq…………1
• Current: Movement of electrons from negatively
charged atoms to positively charged atoms.
- is the time rate of change of charge, measured in
amperes (A). I=dq/dt………………..2

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Power: is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy,
measured in watts (W).

ÞThe power in equation(3) is a time-varying quantity

and is called instantaneous power.
Þ Thus, the power absorbed or supplied by an element is
the product of the voltage across the element and the
current through it
ÞTo determine the sign of power we use passive sign
convection which states current enters through the
positive polarity of the voltage.

fig 2.passive sign

convection
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ÞIn any electric circuit, the law of conservation of
energy must be obeyed.
ÞThe algebraic sum of power in a circuit at any instant
of time must be zero.
Þ ( implies total power supplied to the circuit balance
the total power absorbed.
Example 1: An energy source forces a constant current
of 2 A for 10 s to flow through a light bulb. If 2.3 kJ is
given off in the form of light and heat energy, calculate
the voltage drop across the bulb.
Given I=2A, t=10s w=2.3KJ
Required V=?

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 1.3. BASIC CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

o An element is the basic building block of a circuit.

o Circuit analysis is the process of determining voltages
across (or the currents through) the elements of the
circuit.
o There are two types of elements found in electric
circuits: passive elements and active elements.
o An active element is capable of generating energy. Eg.
Generators, batteries and operational amplifiers.
o a passive element don’t have capability to generate
energy. Eg. Resistors, inductors and capacitors.

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o The most important active elements are voltage or current
sources that generally deliver power to the circuit
connected to them.
o There are two kinds of sources: independent and
dependent sources.
o An ideal dependent (or controlled) source is an active
element in which the source quantity is controlled by
another voltage or current.
o Dependent sources are designated by diamond-shaped
symbols.

o fig 3. dependent sources

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Example 2:Calculate the power supplied or absorbed by each
element

Solution:
P1=20v*(-5A)=-100W (supplied power)
P2=12v*(5A)=60W (absorbed power)
P3=8v*(6A)=48W (absorbed power)
P4=8v*(-0.2I)=8v*(-0.2*5A)=-8W (supplied power)
P1+ P2+ P3+ P4=-100w+60w+48w-8w=0
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 CHAPTER 2
DC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

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 2.1. Introduction
o In chapter one, basic concepts like voltage, current and
power in electric circuit were introduced.
o To determine the values of these variables in a given
circuit requires that we understand some fundamental
laws that govern electric circuits.
o These laws, known as Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws,
form the foundation upon which electric circuit analysis
is built.

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 2.2. Ohm’s Law

• Materials in general have a characteristic behavior of

resisting the flow of electric charge. This physical property,
or ability to resist current, is known as resistance and is
represented by the symbol R.
• The resistance of any material with a uniform cross-
sectional area A depends on A and its length L.

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• Ohm’s Law states that the voltage(V) across a resistor
is directly proportional to the current (I) flowing
through the resistor.
• The resistance R of an element denotes its ability to
resist the flow of electric current; it is measured in
ohms.
• short circuit is a circuit element with resistance
approaching zero.
• open circuit is a circuit element with resistance
approaching infinity

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• In Network (circuit) topology, the properties relating to the
placement of elements in the network and the geometric
configuration of the network should be known. Such
elements include branches, nodes, and loops.
• A branch represents a single element such as a voltage
source or a resistor.
• A node is the point of connection between two or more
branches.
• A loop is any closed path in a circuit.

Example: determine number of

branches, nodes and loops.

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 2.3. Kirchhoff’s Law
• Kirchhoff extended Ohm’s Law with two important
statements.
Kirchhoff’s current law: The algebraic sum of the
currents entering and leaving the junction is equal to
zero or the sum of the currents entering a node is equal
to the sum of the currents leaving the node.
Kirchhoff’s voltage law: the algebraic sum of voltages
a round a closed circuit equals zero or Sum of voltage
drops is equal to sum voltage rises.
Example: determine Vo and i
In the circuit.

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 2.3. Kirchhoff’s Law
o Series resistors and voltage division.
since in series circuit the same
currents flow through the resistors
and using KVL

o Parallel resistors and current division.

in parallel circuit the same voltage
drop a cross the resistors.
=>
using KCL
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 Exercise
o Find the equivalence resistance between a and b
terminals for the below circuit(.

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 Wye-Delta(Y-𝛥) transformation
o Wye network is also called Tee network and the delta network is also
called Pi network.

a) Wye b) Tee a) delta b) pi

1.Each resistor in the Y network is the product of the resistors in the
two adjacent 𝛥 branches, divided by the sum of the three 𝛥 resistors
2.Each resistor in the 𝛥 network is the sum of all possible products of Y
resistors taken two at a time, divided by the opposite Y resistor.

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 Methods of Circuit Analysis
o Nodal Analysis: provides a general procedure for analyzing
circuits using node voltages as the circuit variables.
o Steps to determine Node Voltages
1.Select a node as the reference node. Assign voltages
to the remaining nodes. The voltages are referenced with
respect to the reference node.
2. Apply KCL to each of the non reference nodes. Use
Ohm’s law to express the branch currents in terms of node
voltages.
3. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the
unknown node voltages.

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 Nodal Analysis Example
Calculate the node voltages in the circuit.
step1:node 3 which is the
ground is selected as reference node
@node1=> @node2=>
step 2: applying KCL and ohm’s
law@node1

@node 2,

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 Nodal Analysis Example
⇒ 3 𝑣 1 − 𝑣 2=20 … … …(1)
⇒− 3 𝑣 1 +5 𝑣 2=60 … … ..(2)
Solving the two equations simultaneously

If we need currents

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Nodal Analysis with voltage sources
Two voltage sources were found in this circuit
1. A voltage source connected in between
reference and non reference node.
in such connection the voltage of non reference
node is equal to the voltage source.

2. If the voltage source (dependent or

independent) is connected between two non
reference nodes, the two non reference nodes
form a generalized node or supernode; we
apply both KCL and KVL to determine the
node voltages.

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Nodal Analysis with voltage source

There is no way of knowing the current through the voltage

source for super node. However the KCL must be satisfied
at a super node like any other node.

Thus

Applying KVL

Solving this equations

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 Mesh Analysis
o A mesh is a loop that does not contain any other loop within it.

o mesh analysis applies KVL to find unknown currents.

Steps to Determine Mesh Currents:
1. Assign mesh currents to the n meshes.
2. Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm’s law to
express the voltages in terms of the mesh currents.
3. Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get the mesh
currents.

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Mesh Analysis Example

Applying KVL around mesh 1

Applying KVL around mesh 2

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 Mesh Analysis example 2
Use mesh analysis to find the current in the below circuit.
Solution
Applying mesh analysis to the three meshes.
@ mesh 1

@mesh 2

@ mesh 3

@node A

Substituting equation (4) in (3)

Putting equation (1),(2) and (5) in matrix form:

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 Continue….

Use Cramer's rule to determine mesh currents using

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 Mesh Analysis with Current Sources
Case 1: When a current source exists only in one mesh:
@mesh 1

but

Case 2: When a current source exists between two meshes:

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 Mesh Analysis with Current Sources
Excluding super mesh and applying KVL

Applying KCL to a node in the branch where the two meshes

intersect

Solving this equation

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 Circuit Theorems

 A major advantage of analyzing circuits using Kirchhoff’s

laws is that we can analyze a circuit without tampering
with its original configuration.
 A major disadvantage of this approach is that, for a large,
complex circuit, tedious computation is involved.
 To handle the complexity, Thevenin’s and Norton’s
theorems are used.
 Superposition and source transformation are also used.

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 Super position
 If a circuit has two or more independent sources, one way to
determine the value of a specific variable (voltage or current) is
to use nodal or mesh analysis.
 Another way is to determine the contribution of each
independent source to the variable and then add them up. This
approach is known as the superposition.
 The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or
current through) an element in a linear circuit is the algebraic
sum of the voltages across (or currents through) that element due
to each independent
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and Instrumentation Eng.) alone. 05/27/2024 30
 Continue…….

Steps to Apply Superposition Principle:

1. Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find the
output (voltage or current) due to that active source.

2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.

3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the

contributions due to the independent sources.

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 Example

2Ω We had two independent sources.

3Ω

1Ω
Where and are due to
4𝐴 4A current source and 20V
Voltage source respectively.
5Ω
20𝑉

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 Example

To obtain turn off 20V voltage source. Then apply mesh analysis.
@loop 1, we had
@loop 2,
@loop 3,
@node 0,
After simplification

To obtain turn off the 4A current source.

@loop 4,

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 Example

@loop 5,
, but

Therefore ,

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 Source Transformation

In circuit analysis, substituting a voltage source in series with a

resistor by a current source in parallel with a resistor, or vice versa is
known as source transformation.

fig. transformation of independent sources.

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Example: use source transformation to find vo in the
circuit below

1. Transform the current source to

voltage in series with the resistor.

2. Transform the voltage source to current source in

parallel with the resistor.

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Continue….
3. Combine the 2A and 4A currents and the 6Ω and 3 Ω parallel
resistors we get ;
4. Now by using current division rule

Or since the and resistor are in parallel they have the same
voltage vo across them.

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 Thevenin’s Theorem
Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit
can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a
voltage source in series with a resistor , where is the open-
circuit voltage at the terminals and is the input or equivalent
resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are
turned off.

A linear 2-terminal ckt Thevenin equivalent ckt

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 Example
Find the Thevenin equivalent ckt of the ckt shown below to the
left of terminals a-b.
Solution: to determine turn off
the voltage source (replace it
with a short ckt ) and current
source (replace it with an open ckt)

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 Example
Solution: to find ; apply the mesh analysis to the loops.

@mesh1;

solving for ;

therefore
The thevenin equivalent ckt is

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 Norton’s Theorem
 Norton’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal
circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting
of a current source IN in parallel with a resistor RN, where
IN is the short-circuit current through the terminals and RN
is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when
the independent sources are turned off.

Two terminal linear ckt Norton equivalent ckt

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 Example
Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit in the
terminals a-b for below ckt.

Solution: We find in the same way we find in the Thevenin

equivalent circuit. Setting independent sources equal to zero

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Continue…..
To find we short-circuit terminals a and b
We ignore the resistor because
it has been short circuited.
Applying mesh analysis

Note:

Alternative method to find Norton’s

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 Maximum Power Transfer
 In many practical situations, a circuit is designed to
provide power to a load.
 The Thevenin equivalent is useful in finding the maximum
power a linear circuit can deliver to a load

=>

 Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load

resistance equals the Thevenin resistance ()
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