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DS - W2 - Lecture 2

The document discusses various concepts in discrete structures including conditional statements, biconditional statements, translating statements from English to logic, composite statements, logical equivalence, and tautologies and contradictions. It provides definitions and examples of these concepts.

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34 views21 pages

DS - W2 - Lecture 2

The document discusses various concepts in discrete structures including conditional statements, biconditional statements, translating statements from English to logic, composite statements, logical equivalence, and tautologies and contradictions. It provides definitions and examples of these concepts.

Uploaded by

hasanrza799
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Discrete Structures (SE)

Ms. Talia Bilal


Previous Lecture Summary

• Introduction to the Course


• Propositions
• Logical Connectives
• Truth Tables
• Compound propositions
Conditional Statement

• A conditional statement is a statement where a hypothesis is


followed by a conclusion. It is also known as an “If-then”
statement.
OR
• A conditional statement is a statement that is written in the “If p.
then q” format. Here, the statement p is called the hypothesis and
q is called the conclusion.
Conditional Statements
Implication
Definition: Let p and q be propositions. The conditional
statement p  q, is the proposition “If p, then
q”.
The conditional statement p  q is false when
p is true and q is false and is true otherwise.

where p is called hypothesis, q is called conclusion.


Example: If I am elected, then I will lower taxes.
Implication (if - then)

• Binary Operator, Symbol: 

P Q PQ
true true true
true false false
false true true
false false true
Conditional Statements
Biconditional Statements
Definition: Let p and q be propositions. The biconditional
statement pq, is the proposition “p if and
only if q”.
The biconditional (bi-implication) statement p
 q is true when p and q have same truth
values and is false otherwise.
Example: You can take the flight if and only if you buy a ticket.
Biconditional (if and only if)

• Binary Operator, Symbol: 


P Q PQ
true true true
true false false
false true false
false false true
Translating from English to Logic

 Let p = “It is hot”, and q = “It is sunny”

 SENTENCE SYMBOLIC FORM

It is not hot. p
It is hot and sunny. pq
It is hot or sunny. pq
Translating from English to Logic

I did not buy a lottery ticket this week or I bought a


lottery ticket and won the million dollar on Friday.
Let p and q be two propositions
p: I bought a lottery ticket this week.
q: I won the million dollar on Friday.

In logic form:

p(pq)
Composite Statements
• Statements and operators can be combined in any way to
form new statements.

P Q P Q (P)(Q)
true true false false false
true false false true true
false true true false true
false false true true true
Logical Equivalence

Definition
Two proposition form are called logically equivalent if
and only if they have identical truth values for each
possible substitution of propositions for their
proposition variable.

The logical equivalence of proposition forms P


and Q is written
P≡Q
Equivalence Check

a. If in each row the truth value of P is the


same as the truth value of Q, then P and Q
are logically equivalent.

b. If in some row P has a different truth value


from Q, then P and Q are not logically
equivalent.
Example

• Prove that ¬ (¬p)≡ p

Solution

p ¬p ¬ (¬p)
T F T
F T F

As you can see the corresponding truth values of p


and ¬ (¬p) are same, hence equivalence is justified.
Equivalent Statements
P Q (PQ) (P)(Q) (PQ)(P)(Q)

true true false false true


true false true true true
false true true true true
false false true true true
•Two statements are called logically equivalent if and only if (iff) they
have identical truth tables
•The statements (PQ) and (P)(Q) are logically equivalent,
because (PQ)(P)(Q) is always true.
Example
Show that the proposition forms ¬(pq) and ¬p  ¬q
are NOT logically equivalent.

p q ¬p ¬q (pq) ¬(pq) ¬p¬q


T T
T F
F T
F F
Here the corresponding truth values
differ and hence equivalence does
not hold
Example
Show that the proposition forms ¬(pq) and ¬p  ¬q
are NOT logically equivalent.

p q ¬p ¬q (pq) ¬(pq) ¬p¬q


T T F F T F F
T F F T F T F
F T T F F T F
F F T T F T T
Here the corresponding truth values
differ and hence equivalence does
not hold
Exercise

Truth Tables for:


•~ p  q
•~ p  (q  r)
• (p  q)  ~ (p  q)
Upcoming Topics

• De Morgan’s Laws

• Tautology

• Contradiction

• Laws of Logic
Tautologies and Contradictions

• Tautology is a statement that is always true. It doesn't matter


what the individual part consists of, the result in tautology is
always true.

• Example: Suppose there are two given statements, A


and B. Here, (A ⇒ B) ∨ (B ⇒ A) is a tautology.
Contradictions
• A Contradiction is a statement that is always false
regardless of the truth values of the individual logical
variables.

Examples:

• R(R)
 ((PQ)(P)(Q))
De Morgan’s laws
De Morgan’s laws state that:
The negation of an and proposition is
logically equivalent to the or proposition in
which each component is negated.

The negation of an or proposition is logically


equivalent to the and proposition in which
each component is negated.

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