Tides and Water Levels

Tides are one of the most reliable phenomena in the world. As the sun
rises in the east and the stars come out at night, we are confident that
the ocean waters will regularly rise and fall along our shores. The
following pages describe the tremendous forces that cause the world’s
tides, and why it is important for us to understand how they work.
• This animation shows the relationship between the vertical and
horizontal components of tides. As the tide rises, water moves toward
the shore. This is called a flood current. As the tide recedes, the
waters move away from the shore. This is called an ebb current. The
movement of water toward and away from the shore is illustrated by
the movement of the green seaweed.
• Basically, tides are very long-period waves that move through the
oceans in response to the forces exerted by the moon and sun. Tides
originate in the oceans and progress toward the coastlines where
they appear as the regular rise and fall of the sea surface. When the
highest part, or crest of the wave reaches a particular location, high
tide occurs; low tide corresponds to the lowest part of the wave, or
its trough. The difference in height between the high tide and the
low tide is called the tidal range.
• A horizontal movement of water often accompanies the rising and
falling of the tide. This is called the tidal current. The incoming tide
along the coast and into the bays and estuaries is called a flood
current; the outgoing tide is called an ebb current. The strongest flood
and ebb currents usually occur before or near the time of the high
and low tides. The weakest currents occur between the flood and ebb
currents and are called "slack water" or "slack current". In the open
ocean tidal currents are relatively weak. Near estuary entrances,
narrow straits and inlets, the speed of tidal currents can reach up to
several kilometers per hour.
What Causes Tides?
• Gravity is one major force that creates tides. In 1687, Sir Isaac Newton
explained that ocean tides result from the gravitational attraction of
the sun and moon on the oceans of the earth (Sumich, J.L., 1996).

• Newton’s law of universal gravitation states that the gravitational

attraction between two bodies is directly proportional to their
masses, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between the bodies (Sumich, J.L., 1996; Thurman, H.V., 1994).
Therefore, the greater the mass of the objects and the closer they are
to each other, the greater the gravitational attraction between them
(Ross, D.A. 1995).
• Tidal forces are based on the gravitational attractive force. With regard to tidal
forces on the Earth, the distance between two objects usually is more critical
than their masses. Tidal generating forces vary inversely as the cube of the
distance from the tide generating object. Gravitational attractive forces only
vary inversely to the square of the distance between the objects (Thurman,
H.V., 1994). The effect of distance on tidal forces is seen in the relationship
between the sun, the moon, and the Earth’s waters.

• Our sun is 27 million times larger than our moon. Based on its mass, the sun's
gravitational attraction to the Earth is more than 177 times greater than that of
the moon to the Earth. If tidal forces were based solely on comparative masses,
the sun should have a tide-generating force that is 27 million times greater
than that of the moon. However, the sun is 390 times further from the Earth
than is the moon. Thus, its tide-generating force is reduced by 3903, or about
59 million times less than the moon. Because of these conditions, the sun’s
tide-generating force is about half that of the moon (Thurman, H.V., 1994).
• The relationship between the masses of the Earth, moon and sun and
their distances to each other play a critical role in affecting the Earth's
tides. Although the sun is 27 million times more massive than the
moon, it is 390 times further away from the Earth than the moon. Tidal
generating forces vary inversely as the cube of the distance from the
tide-generating object. This means that the sun’s tidal generating
force is reduced by 3903 (about 59 million times) compared to the tide-
generating force of the moon. Therefore, the sun’s tide-generating
force is about half that of the moon, and the moon is the dominant
force affecting the Earth’s tides.
Gravity, Inertia, and the Two Bulges

• The gravitational attraction between the Earth and the moon is strongest
on the side of the Earth that happens to be facing the moon, simply
because it is closer. This attraction causes the water on this “near side” of
Earth to be pulled toward the moon. As gravitational force acts to draw
the water closer to the moon, inertia attempts to keep the water in place.
But the gravitational force exceeds it and the water is pulled toward the
moon, causing a “bulge” of water on the near side toward the moon (Ross,
D.A., 1995).

• On the opposite side of the Earth, or the “far side,” the gravitational
attraction of the moon is less because it is farther away. Here, inertia
exceeds the gravitational force, and the water tries to keep going in a
straight line, moving away from the Earth, also forming a bulge (Ross, D.A.,
1995).
Gravity and inertia act in opposition on the Earth’s oceans,
creating tidal bulges on opposite sites of the planet. On the
“near” side of the Earth (the side facing the moon), the
gravitational force of the moon pulls the ocean’s waters toward
it, creating one bulge. On the far side of the Earth, inertia
dominates, creating a second bulge.
• In this way the combination of gravity and inertia create two bulges of
water. One forms where the Earth and moon are closest, and the
other forms where they are furthest apart. Over the rest of the globe
gravity and inertia are in relative balance. Because water is fluid, the
two bulges stay aligned with the moon as the Earth rotates (Ross,
D.A., 1995).

• The sun also plays a major role, affecting the size and position of the
two tidal bulges. The interaction of the forces generated by the moon
and the sun can be quite complex. As this is an introduction to the
subject of tides and water levels we will focus most of our attention
on the effects of the stronger celestial influence, the moon.
Changing Angles and Changing Tides

• As we’ve just seen, the Earth's two tidal bulges are aligned with the positions of
the moon and the sun. Over time, the positions of these celestial bodies change
relative to the Earth’s equator. The changes in their relative positions have a
direct effect on daily tidal heights and tidal current intensity.

• As the moon revolves around the Earth, its angle increases and decreases in
relation to the equator. This is known as its declination. The two tidal bulges
track the changes in lunar declination, also increasing or decreasing their angles
to the equator. Similarly, the sun’s relative position to the equator changes over
the course of a year as the Earth rotates around it. The sun’s declination affects
the seasons as well as the tides. During the vernal and autumnal equinoxes—
March 21 and September 23, respectively—the sun is at its minimum
declination because it is positioned directly above the equator. On June 21 and
December 22—the summer and winter solstices, respectively—the sun is at its
maximum declination, i.e., its largest angle to the equator (Sumich, J.L., 1996).
The Earth’s tidal bulges track, or follow, the position of the moon, and to
a lesser extent, the sun. As the angles of these two celestial bodies in
relation to the Earth increase and decrease, so do the tidal bulges. Here
we observe the moon's changing declination to the equator and the
effect that this has on the positions of the Earth’s tidal bulges.
Frequency of Tides - The Lunar Day
• Most coastal areas, with some exceptions, experience two high tides and
two low tides every day. Almost everyone is familiar with the concept of a
24-hour solar day, which is the time that it takes for a specific site on the
Earth to rotate from an exact point under the sun to the same point under
the sun.

• Similarly, a lunar day (also known as a "tidal day") is the time it takes for a
specific site on the Earth to rotate from an exact point under the moon to
the same point under the moon. Unlike a solar day, however, a lunar day is
24 hours and 50 minutes. The lunar day is 50 minutes longer than a solar
day because the moon revolves around the Earth in the same direction
that the Earth rotates around its axis. So, it takes the Earth an extra 50
minutes to “catch up” to the moon.
Because the Earth rotates through two tidal “bulges” every lunar day, coastal
areas experience two high and two low tides every 24 hours and 50 minutes. High
tides occur 12 hours and 25 minutes apart. It takes six hours and 12.5 minutes for
the water at the shore to go from high to low, or from low to high.
• Unlike a 24-hour solar day, a lunar day lasts 24 hours and 50 minutes.
This occurs because the moon revolves around the Earth in the same
direction that the Earth is rotating on its axis. Therefore, it takes the
Earth an extra 50 minutes to “catch up” to the moon. Since the Earth
rotates through two tidal “bulges” every lunar day, we experience two
high and two low tides every 24 hours and 50 minutes. Here, we see
the relationship between the tidal cycle and the lunar day. High tides
occur 12 hours and 25 minutes apart, taking six hours and 12.5
minutes for the water at the shore to go from high to low, and then
from low to high. Note: This animation is shown from the perspective
of a viewer in the northern hemisphere. From a viewer in the
southern hemisphere, the rotation would appear to go clockwise.
Tidal Variations - The Influence of Position and
Distance
• The moon is a major influence on the Earth’s tides, but the sun also
generates considerable tidal forces. Solar tides are about half as
large as lunar tides and are expressed as a variation of lunar tidal
patterns, not as a separate set of tides. When the sun, moon, and
Earth are in alignment (at the time of the new or full moon), the
solar tide has an additive effect on the lunar tide, creating extra-high
high tides, and very low, low tides—both commonly called spring
tides. One week later, when the sun and moon are at right angles to
each other, the solar tide partially cancels out the lunar tide and
produces moderate tides known as neap tides. During each lunar
month, two sets of spring tides and two sets of neap tides occur
(Sumich, J.L., 1996).
• Together, the gravitational
pull of the moon and the
sun affect the Earth’s tides
on a monthly basis. When
the sun, moon, and Earth
are in alignment (at the time
of the new or full moon),
the solar tide has an
additive effect on the lunar
tide, creating extra-high
high tides, and very low, low
tides — both commonly
called spring tides
• One week later, when the sun
and moon are at right angles to
each other, the solar tide
partially cancels out the lunar
tide and produces moderate
tides known as neap tides.
During each lunar month, two
sets of spring and two sets of
neap tides occur
• Just as the angles of the sun, moon and Earth
affect tidal heights over the course of a lunar
month, so do their distances to one another.
Because the moon follows an elliptical path
around the Earth, the distance between them
varies by about 31,000 miles over the course
of a month. Once a month, when the moon is
closest to the Earth (at perigee), tide-
generating forces are higher than usual,
producing above-average ranges in the tides.
About two weeks later, when the moon is
farthest from the Earth (at apogee), the lunar
tide-raising force is smaller, and the tidal
ranges are less than average. A similar
situation occurs between the Earth and the
sun. When the Earth is closest to the sun
(perihelion), which occurs about January 2 of
each calendar year, the tidal ranges are
enhanced. When the Earth is furthest from the
sun (aphelion), around July 2, the tidal ranges
are reduced (Sumich, J.L., 1996; Thurman, H.V.,
1994).
• The elliptical orbits of the moon around
the Earth and the Earth around the sun
have a substantial effect on the the
Earth’s tides. Once a month, at perigee,
when the moon is closest to the Earth,
tide-generating forces are higher than
usual, producing above average ranges in
the tides. About two weeks later, at
apogee, when the moon is farthest from
the Earth, the lunar tide-raising force is
smaller, and the tidal ranges are less than
average. When the Earth is closest to the
sun (perihelion), around January 2 of the
calendar year, tidal ranges are enhanced.
At aphelion, when the Earth is furthest
from the sun, around July 2, tidal ranges
are reduced (Sumich, J.L., 1996; Thurman,
H.V., 1994).
Types and Causes of Tidal Cycles –
Diurnal, Semidiurnal, Mixed Semidiurnal; Continental Interference
• If the Earth were a perfect sphere without large continents, all areas on the
planet would experience two equally proportioned high and low tides every
lunar day. The large continents on the planet, however, block the westward
passage of the tidal bulges as the Earth rotates. Unable to move freely
around the globe, these tides establish complex patterns within each ocean
basin that often differ greatly from tidal patterns of adjacent ocean basins or
other regions of the same ocean basin (Sumich, J.L., 1996).

• Three basic tidal patterns occur along the Earth’s major shorelines. In
general, most areas have two high tides and two low tides each day. When
the two highs and the two lows are about the same height, the pattern is
called a semi-daily or semidiurnal tide. If the high and low tides differ in
height, the pattern is called a mixed semidiurnal tide.
Some areas, such as the Gulf of Mexico, have only one high and one low tide each
day. This is called a diurnal tide. The U.S. West Coast tends to have mixed
semidiurnal tides, whereas a semidiurnal pattern is more typical of the East Coast
(Sumich, J.L., 1996; Thurman, H.V., 1994; Ross, D.A., 1995).
Diurnal tide cycle (upper left). An area has a diurnal tidal cycle if it experiences one high and one
low tide every lunar day. Many areas in the Gulf of Mexico experience these types of tides.

Semidiurnal tide cycle (upper right). An area has a semidiurnal tidal cycle if it experiences two high
and two low tides of approximately equal size every lunar day. Many areas on the eastern coast of
North America experience these tidal cycles.

Mixed Semidiurnal tide cycle (lower middle). An area has a mixed semidiurnal tidal cycle if it
experiences two high and two low tides of different size every lunar day. Many areas on the western
coast of North America experience these tidal cycles.
What Affects Tides in Addition to the Sun and Moon?

• The relative distances and positions of the sun, moon and Earth
all affect the size and magnitude of the Earth’s two tidal bulges.
At a smaller scale, the magnitude of tides can be strongly
influenced by the shape of the shoreline. When oceanic tidal
bulges hit wide continental margins, the height of the tides can
be magnified. Conversely, mid-oceanic islands not near
continental margins typically experience very small tides of 1
meter or less
• The shape of bays and estuaries also can magnify the intensity of
tides. Funnel-shaped bays in particular can dramatically alter tidal
magnitude. The Bay of Fundy in Nova Scotia is the classic example
of this effect, and has the highest tides in the world – over 15
meters (Thurman, H.V., 1994). Narrow inlets and shallow water
also tend to dissipate incoming tides. Inland bays such as Laguna
Madre, Texas, and Pamlico Sound, North Carolina, have areas
classified as non-tidal even though they have ocean inlets. In
estuaries with strong tidal rivers, such as the Delaware River and
Columbia River, powerful seasonal river flows in the spring can
severely alter or mask the incoming tide.
• Local wind and weather patterns also can affect tides.
Strong offshore winds can move water away from
coastlines, exaggerating low tide exposures. Onshore
winds may act to pile up water onto the shoreline,
virtually eliminating low tide exposures. High – pressure
systems can depress sea levels, leading to clear sunny
days with exceptionally low tides. Conversely, low-
pressure systems that contribute to cloudy, rainy
conditions typically are associated with tides than are
much higher than predicted.
The Importance of Monitoring the Tides and Their Currents
• Predicting tides has always been
important to people who look to the sea
for their livelihood. Commercial and
recreational fishermen use their
knowledge of the tides and tidal
currents to help them improve their
catches. Depending on the species and
water depth in a particular area, fish
may concentrate during ebb or flood
tidal currents. In some areas, strong
tidal currents concentrate bait and
smaller fish, attracting larger fish. In
addition, knowledge of the tides has
also been of interest to recreational
beachgoers and surfers.
• Navigating ships through shallow water ports, intracoastal
waterways and estuaries requires knowledge of the time and
height of the tides as well as the speed and direction of the tidal
currents. This was particularly critical to sailing ships because they
had to take advantage of the tides and currents to maneuver
correctly. Knowledge of tides and currents is still critical because
today’s vessels are much larger than the old sailing ships. The
depths and widths of the channels in which they sail, and the
increased marine traffic leaves very little room for error. Real-time
water level, water current, and weather measurement systems now
are being used in many major ports to provide mariners and port
operators with the latest conditions.
• Marine commerce is an area in
which tide and current
predictions are critical. In June
2002, these four marine cranes
valued at $5 million cleared the
Oakland Bridge in San Francisco
Bay by approximately 6 feet. If
you look carefully in the center of
the image, you can see a
shadowed figure between the
crane and the bridge. This is one
of the mariners standing on top of
the crane and touching the
bottom of the bridge as the barge
passes beneath it
How are Tides Measured? - The Old System

• In the past, most water level

measuring systems used a
recorder driven by a float in a
“stilling” well. A stilling well
calms the waters around the
water level sensor. A typical
stilling well consisted of a 12-
inch wide pipe. Inside the
stilling well, an 8-inch diameter
float was hung by wire from the
recording unit above.
• Before computers were used, water level data was recorded on a
continuously running pen and ink strip chart. These records were
collected by observers once a month and mailed to headquarters for
manual processing. In the 1960s, data were recorded onto
mechanically punched paper tape that were read into a computer for
processing. Water levels were recorded at 6-minute intervals.
Observers maintained and adjusted the clocks, and calibrated the
gauges with the tide readings. Tide stations were visited annually to
maintain the tide houses and clean biological fouling from the
underwater surfaces. During these annual visits, the components and
support structures also were checked for stability.
• Although these systems worked
well, they had their limitations.
Stations were subject to
recording errors and marine
fouling, and were constantly in
need of maintenance. In
addition, the measurement and
data processing equipment
could not provide users with
information until weeks after the
data was collected.
How are Tides Measured? - The New System
• Advances in technology have helped solve
many of the problems associated with the old
tidal recording systems. Microprocessor-based
technologies allow for customized data
collection and have improved measurement
accuracy. While older tidal measuring stations
used mechanical floats and recorders, a new
generation of monitoring stations uses
advanced acoustics and electronics. Today's
recorders send an audio signal down a half-
inch-wide sounding tube and measure the
time it takes for the reflected signal to travel
back from the water's surface. The sounding
tube is mounted inside a 6-inch diameter
protective well, which is similar to the old
stilling well.
What are Harmonic Constituents?
• Tides are created by the gravitational forces of the Moon and Sun, acting upon the waters of the Earth. Those
gravitational forces change as the relative positions of the Earth, Sun, and Moon change. We can visibly see
these position changes in the rise and set of the Sun and Moon, the changing phases of the Moon, and the
changing seasons of the years. Each of these changes is cyclical, repeating over time; and each change also has a
measurable effect on the tides we experience on the ocean’s coast.
• There are hundreds of periodic motions of the Earth, Sun, and Moon that are identified by astronomy. Each of
these motions or “constituents” in a set of harmonic constants is a mathematical value describing the effect that
cyclical motion of the Earth, Sun, Moon system has on the tides. There are 37 which normally have the greatest
effect on tides and are used as the tidal harmonic constituents to predict tidal conditions for a location.
• A few examples:
• M2 – The largest lunar constituent – is related to the direct gravitational effect of the Moon on the tides. The
Earth rotates on its axis every 24-hours, but the Moon is orbiting in the same direction as the Earth’s rotation. It
takes a location on the Earth an additional 50 minutes to “catch up” to the Moon. This results in a tidal signal
(M2) which has 2 peaks every 24-hours and 50 minutes.
• S2 – The largest solar constituent – is related to the direct gravitational effect of the Sun on the tides. The Earth
rotates on its axis every 24-hours. This results in a tidal signal (S2) which has 2 peaks every 24-hours.
• SA – Solar Annual constituent – is related to the changing positions of the Earth and Sun on an annual basis,
every 365.25 days.
• Each constituent can be represented as a Cosine Curve, with the values providing the amplitude and phase
difference for one of the 37 periodic motions. Tide predictions are a calculation, summing the effects of the 37
Cosine Curves for a set of harmonic constants; resulting in the complex curve of the tides
How are Harmonic Constants generated?

• Harmonic constants can only be calculated through the analysis of tidal

data collected at a location. A minimum of 30 days of data is used in
order to observe the majority of the lunar and solar cycles. A year of
data is necessary to directly observe all of the 37 tidal harmonic
constituents. Stations which have longer series of data will typically use
harmonic constants based on multiple years.