COMPUTER NETWORKS AND DATA

COMMUNICATION
• LCS3201/CED 3201
INTRODUCTION
• Data-refers to raw facts. The Webster dictionary defined data as
“information in digital form that can be transmitted or processed”.
The data may be in any form such as text, symbols, images, videos,
signals and so on.
• Information-refers to processed data that enable us to make decision.
• Communication is referred as exchanging information from one
entity to another entity in a meaningful way. The entities may be
refereed to as human beings, animals, machines, birds, etc. the
meaningful way refers that the communication must be understandable
by the two entities, e.g. Speaker and Listener in English
• To provide communication, information must be carried by a carrier
which can either be wire or wireless
• Data communication-is the process of exchanging data or
information.
• Incase of computer networks, this exchange is done between two
devices over a transmission medium.
• This process of data communication involves a communication system
which is made of Hardware and software. The hardware part involves
the sender and receiver devices and the intermediate devices through
which the data passes.
Characteristics of Data Communication
• To provide effective communication systems, the following four
characteristics must be followed:
Delivery-The data to be communicated must be delivered to the correct destination
or correct user.
Accuracy-The communication system should deliver the data accurately without
introducing errors or any alteration. However the data may get corrupted during
transmission affecting the accuracy of the delivered data.
Timeliness-The communication system must deliver the data without any delay, for
example, Audio and Video data has to be delivered in a timely manner without any
delay, such data delivery is called real time transmission of data.
Jitter-In a network, data are split into smaller groups (packets) and sent separately.
The variation in the arrival time of two packets is called Jitter. Uneven Jitter may
affect the timeliness of the data being transmitted.
Components of a Data Communication
system
1. Message-Is the information to be communicated by the sender to the
receiver.
2. Sender-is any device that is capable of sending the data (message).
3. Receiver-is the device the sender wants to communicate the data
(message).
4. Transmission medium-is the path by which the message travels from
sender to receiver which may be wired or wireless.
5. Protocol-it is an agreed upon set or rules used by the sender and
receiver to communicate data. It is a set of rules that govern data
communication, without it, the communicating entities are like two
persons trying to talk to each other in a different language without
knowing the other language.
Components of a Data Communication
Data Representation
• There may be different forms in which data may be represented and
some of which are:
Text-Combination of alphabets and stored as a pattern of bits using encoding
system, e.g, ASCII
Numbers-Combination of digits 0-9 and stored as a pattern of bits using
encoding system, e.g. ASCII.
Images
o In computers, images are digitally stored in form of “PIXELS”, where pixels is the smallest
element of an image.
o Therefore a picture or image is a matrix of pixel elements.
o The pixels are represented in the form of bits. Depending on the type of image (black and
white or color), each pixel would require different number of bits to represent the value of
pixel.
 o Size of image depends on the number of pixels (also called resolution) and the bit
pattern used to indicate the value of each pixel, e.g, if an image is purely black and white
(two color), each pixel can be represented by a value of either 0 or 1. Meanwhile an
image of different colors may require two bits to represent every pixel value (00-black,
01-dark grey, 10-light gray, 11-white)
o Commonly used image file formats are jpg (Joint Photographic expert group)-digital
format of compressed image), png (Portable Network Graphics)-can handle graphics
with transparent/semitransparent backgrounds-used by web designers , bmp (Bitmap)
or (Bitmap image)-an uncompressed file format where every pixel of an image has its
own bit or group of bits in the file, etc.
Audio-Sound which can be recorded and broadcasted, e.g. in radio which
may be continuous or discrete.
Video-Picture or movie
DATA FLOW
• Two devices communicate with each other by sending and receiving
data and they can do in the following ways:
Simplex mode of communication-is unidirectional-only one of the devices
sends data and the other device receives data, e.g. CPU sending data to
monitor
Half Duplex mode of communication-Both stations/devices can transmit as
well as receive but not at the same time, i.e. when one device is sending,
other can only receive and vice versa, e.g. a Walkie talkie
Full Duplex mode of communication-Both stations/devices can transmit and
receive at the same time, e.g. mobile phones.
COMPUTER NETWORK
• Computer Networks are used for data communications.
• A computer network can be defined as a collection of nodes whereby
a node can be any device capable of transmitting or receiving data.
• The communicating nodes have to be connected by communication
links (wired or wireless).
• A computer network should ensure some of the following:
Reliability of the data communication process
Security of data
Performance by achieving higher throughput (amount of information in a
particular time) and smaller delays
CATEGORIES OF COMPUTER
NETWORK
• Networks are categorized on the basis of their size:
• Three basic categories are:
Local Area Network (LAN)-limited to a few kilometers of area-may be
privately owned on inside an office (network of computers)
Metropolitain Area Network (MAN)-bigger than LAN. It may comprise entire
network in a city.
Wide Area Network (WAN)-made of all networks in a (geographically) large
area.
PROTOCOL
• A protocol is defined as set of rules that govern data communications.
• Without protocol communication cannot occur. The sending device cannot just send
the data and expect the receiving device to receive and further interpret it correctly.
• When the sender sends a message it may consist of text, number, images, etc. which
are converted into bits and grouped into blocks to be transmitted and often certain
additional information called control information is also added to help the receiver
interpret the data.
• For successful communication to occur, the sender and receiver must agree upon
certain rules called protocol.
• A protocol defines what is to be communicated, how it is to be communicated and
when it is to be communicated.
Elements of a protocol
• Three key elements of a protocol
• Syntax
 It means the structure or format of the data.
 It is the arrangement of data in a particular order.
• Semantics
 It tells the meaning of each section of bits and indicates the interpretation of each section.
 It also tells what action/decision is to be taken based on the interpretation.
• Timing
 It tells the sender about the readiness of the receiver to receive the data
 It tells the sender at what rate the data should be sent to the receiver to avoid overwhelming
the receiver.
STANDARDS IN NETWORKING
• Standards provide guidelines to product manufacturers and vendors to
ensure national and international interconnectivity.
• Standards are necessary in networking to ensure interconnectivity and
interoperability between various networking hardware and software
components.
• Without standards we would have proprietary products creating
isolated islands of users which cannot interconnect.
CONCEPTS OF STANDARD
• Data communications standards are classified into two categories:
De facto Standard
These are the standards that have been traditionally used and mean by fact or by
convention
These standards are not approved by any organized body but are adopted by
widespread use.
De jure standard
It means by law or by regulation.
These standards are legislated and approved by an body that is officially recognized.
STANDARD ORGANIZATIONS IN THE
FIELD OF NETWORKING
• Standards are created by standards creation committees, forums, and government
regulatory agencies
• Examples of Standard Creation Committees :
International Organization for Standardization(ISO)
International Telecommunications Union – Telecommunications Standard (ITU-T)
American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
Electronic Industries Associates (EIA)
• Examples of Regulatory Agencies:
Federal Communications Committee (FCC)
DATA AND SIGNALS
• For data to be transmitted, it must be transformed to
electromagnetic signals such as an electrical voltage, radiowave,
microwave or infrared signal (waves that are created as a result of
vibrations between an electric field and a magnetic field).
• Data can be Analog or Digital
• Analog data-information that is continuous, e.g. sound made by
human voice
• Digital data-information that take on discrete states, e.g. data
that are stored in computer memory in form of 0s and 1s.
• Signals can be of two types
• Analog signal-They have infinite values in a range
• Digital signal-They have limited number of defined values
Periodic and Non periodic signals
• Periodic signal are signals that repeat itself after a fixed time period.
• Non periodic signals are signals which do not repeat itself after a fixed
time period.
• In data communications, we commonly use periodic analog signals
and non periodic digital signals
ANALOG SIGNALS
• An analog signals has infinitely many levels of intensity over a period
of time.
• A simple analog signal is a sine wave that can not be decomposed
into further simpler signals.
• As the wave move from value A to value B, it passes through and
includes an infinite number of values along its path.
• A sine wave is characterized by three parameters
Peak amplitude
Frequency
Phase
Characteristics of an analog signals
• Peak amplitude-is the absolute value (magnitude of real number, sign
being ignored) of its intensity at time, t. (absolute value of the highest
intensity.
• The amplitude of a signal is proportional to the energy carried out by
the signal.
• Frequency-refers to number of cycles completed by the wave in one
second.
• Period refers to time taken by the wave to complete one Cycle.
Relationship between Frequency (f) and
Period (T)
• It is indicated by the below formula

• E.g. 1. A wave has a frequency of 100hz, what is its period?

• Soln. its period T is given by 1/F=1/100=0.01 sec
• E.g. 2. A wave completes its one cycle in 0.25 seconds, what is its
frequency?, Soln. Frequency =1/T=1/0.25=4Hz
• Phase-describes the position of the waveform with respect to time, t.
• Phase indicates the forward or backward shift of the wave form from
the axis. It is measured in degrees or radians (unit of measurement of
angles).
Wavelength, λ

• Wavelength [λ (pronounced as lamda)] -Is the distance a signal

travels in one period.
• Refers to the relationship between the frequency (period) and the
propagation speed of the wave through the medium.
• It is given by the formula, wavelength = Propagation speed X Period
• OR
• Wavelength = Propagation speed X 1/Frequency
• It is measured in micrometers.
• It varies from one medium to another medium
Composite signal
• A composite signal is a combination of two or more simple sine waves
with different frequency, phase and amplitude.
• A composite signal can be periodic or non periodic
• If the composite signal is periodic, the decomposition gives a series of
signals with discrete frequencies, if the composite signal is non
periodic, the decomposition gives a combination of sine waves with
continuous frequencies.
• For data communication, a simple sine wave is not useful, what is
used is a composite signal which is a combination of many simple sine
waves
DIGITAL SIGNAL
• A digital signal is the one which has discrete values (not continuous).
• Information in a digital signal can be represented in form of voltage
levels, where ‘1’ represents a positive voltage and ‘0’ represents zero
voltage OR ‘1’ represents a positive voltage and ‘0’ represents a
negative voltage.
• A digital signal can have more than two levels
• In general if a signal has L levels, then each level need Log2 L bits.
• E.g. Consider a digital signal with four levels, how many bits are
required per level?
• Soln. Number of bits per level is Log 2L=Log 2 (4) = 2
• BIT length or BIT interval (Tb)-Is the time required to send one bit. It is measured
in seconds.
• BIT RATE-Is the number of bits transmitted in one second. It is expressed as bits
per second (bps).
• The relationship between bit rate and bit interval is given by
Bit rate = 1/Bit interval
• Baud Rate-It is the rate of Signal speed, i.e. the rate at which the signal changes.
• E.g.1. A digital signal with two levels ‘0’ & ‘1’ will have the same baud rate and
bit rate.
• E.g.2. A digital signal with a bit rate of 16bits/sec and baud rate of 4 baud/sec.
TYPES OF CHANNELS
• A Channel is the medium through which the signal carrying
information will be passed.
• Each composite signal has a lowest possible (minimum) frequency
and a highest possible (maximum) frequency.
• In transmission, there are two types of channels:
Low pass channel-has the lowest frequency as ‘0’ and the highest frequency
as some non-zero frequency ‘f1’ and it can pass all frequencies in the range 0
to f1.
Band pass channel-has the lowest frequency as some non zero frequency ‘f1’
and the highest frequency as some non zero frequency ‘f2’ and can pss all
frequencies in the range f1 to f2.
Transmission of Digital Signal
• Digital signal can be transmitted in two ways:
Baseband transmission-the signal is transmitted without making any change
to it (i.e. without modulation)
In baseband transmission, the bandwidth of the signal has to be less than the bandwidth
of the channel.
E.g. For a baseband channel with lower frequency 0Hz and higher frequency 100Hz has a
bandwidth of 100. (Bandwidth is calculated by getting the difference between the
highest and lowest frequency)
A signal with frequency below 100Hz can easily be transmitted and such a channel
whose bandwidth is more than the bandwidth of the signal is called Wideband channel
Logically, a signal with frequency say 120Hz will be blocked resulting in loss of
information and such a channel whose bandwidth is less than the bandwidth of the
signal is called Narrowband channel
Broadband transmission
Given a bandpass channel, digital signal can not be transmitted directly
through it.
In broadband transmission, we use modulation i.e. The signal is transmitted
with modulation, the digital signal is first converted to analogue signal before
transmitting it.
E.g. Consider a bandpass channel with lower frequency 50Hz and higher
frequency 80Hz and the signal to be transmitted is 10Hz.
To pass the analog through the bandpass channel, the signal is modulated
using a carrier frequency.
The analog signal (10Hz) is modulated by a carrier frequency of 50Hz resulting
in a signal frequency 60Hz which can pass through the passband channel.
• The signal is demodulated and again converted into a digital signal.
BANDWIDTH OF A SIGNAL
• Bandwidth can be defined as the portion of electromagnetic
spectrum occupied by the signal.
• It may also be defined as the frequency range over which a signal is
transmitted.
• Different types of signals have different bandwidth, e.g. voice signal,
music signal, etc.
• Analog signal is measured in terms of its frequency and digital signal
bandwidth is measured in terms of bit rate (bits per second).
• Bandwidth of a signal is different from bandwidth of medium/signal.
Bandwidth of an analog signal
• Bandwidth of an analog signal is expressed in terms of its frequencies.
• It is defined as the range of frequencies that the composite analog
signal carries.
• It is calculated by getting the difference between the maximum
frequency and minimum frequency.
• E.g. A composite analog signal with minimum frequency of f1=30Hz
and maximum frequency of f2=90Hz has bandwidth given by f2-
f1=(90-30)Hz = 60Hz
• Bandwidth of a digital signal is defined as the maximum bit rate to be
transmitted. It is measured in bits per second.
BANDWIDTH OF CHANNEL
• A channel is the medium through which the signal carrying information will be
passed.
• In terms of analog signal, bandwidth of the channel is the range of frequencies that
the channel can carry.
• In terms of digital signal, bandwidth of the channel is the maximum bit rate
supported by the channel. i.e. the maximum amount of data that the channel can
carry per second.
• The bandwidth of the medium should always be greater than the bandwidth of the
signal to be transmitted, else the transmitted signal will be either attenuated or
distorted or both leading to loss of information.
• The channel bandwidth determines the type of signal to be transmitted. i.e analog
or digital.
THE MAXIMUM DATA RATE OF A
CHANNEL
• Data rate depends on three factors:
 The bandwidth available.
 The level of signal used.
 The quality of the channel (the level of noise)
• The quality of a channel is of two types:
 A noisy channel or perfect channel (an ideal channel with no noise)
 The Nyquist bit rate formula defining the theoretical maximum bit rate for a noiseless channel is given
by
Bitrate = 2 X Bandwidth X Log2 L
Where, Bitrate is the bitrate of the channel in bits per second.
Bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel
L = is the number of signal levels
• Example-What is the maximum bit rate of a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 5000 Hz
transmitting a signal with two signal levels.
• Solution: The bit rate for a noiseless channel according to Nyquist Bit rate can be calculated as
follows:
• BitRate = 2 x Bandwidth x Log2 L = 2 x 5000 x log2 2 =10000 bps
• Shannon Capacity The Shannon Capacity defines the theoretical maximum bit rate for a noisy
channel.
• Capacity=bandwidth X log2 (1 +SNR).
• Where, Capacity is the capacity of the channel in bits per second.
• Bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel.
• SNR is the Signal to Noise Ratio.
• Shannon Capacity for calculating the maximum bit rate for a noisy channel does not consider
the number of levels of the signals being transmitted as done in the Nyquist bit rate.
• Example: Calculate the bit rate for a noisy channel with SNR 300 and bandwidth of 3000Hz.
• Capacity=bandwidth X log2 (1 +SNR) = 3000 x log2 (1 + 300) = 3000 x log2 ( 301) = 3000 x
8.23 = 24,690bps.
Some common communication Tasks

• Data encoding: the process of transforming input data or signals into

signals that can be transmitted over a medium.
• Signal generation: generating appropriate electro-magnetic signals to
be transmitted over a transmission medium.
• Synchronization: timing of signals between the transmitter and
receiver from when a signal begins and when it ends (duration of each
signal).
• Error detection and correction: ensuring that transmission errors are
detected and corrected.
• Flow control: ensuring that the source does not overwhelm the
destination by sending data faster than the receiver can handle.
• Multiplexing: is a method by which multiple analog or digital signals
are combined into one signal over a shared medium.
This technique used to make more efficient use of a transmission
facility and is used at different levels of communication.
Modulation is varying the properties of a career signal to send information,
whereas multiplexing is a way of combining multiple signals
• Addressing: indicating the identity of the intended destination.
• Routing: selecting appropriate paths for data being transmitted.
• Message formatting: conforming to the appropriate format of the
message to be exchanged.
• Security: ensuring secure message transmission.
• Systems management: configuring the system, monitoring its status,
reacting to failures and overloads, and planning for future growth.
Some Ancient/Manual Methods and tools of Data
Communication
• In Olden days, data communication was manual in nature:
Used messengers.
Sounding of Drums, bells or Horns.
Smoke and fire.
• Shortcomings of the olden/manual days of data communication
 Distortion of message by the messenger
 Small coverage
 Delay
 Misinterpretation of message by the recipient
 Message fails to reach intended destination
 Message cannot be kept future reference
Some modern electronic data communication
tools
• Computers
• Mobile phones
• Social media such as Face book and tweeter
• E-mail
• Instant messaging
• Skype
• A Webcast is the delivery of live or delayed sound or video broadcasts over the internet using
streaming media technology. The sound or video is captured by the conventional video or audio
systems, then digitized and streamed, E.g. News broadcast, Radio and TV programs
• Video conferencing-is the conduct of a session/discussion using a set
technologies which allow two or more locations to communicate by simultaneous
two-way real time video and audio transmissions.
• A Webinars is short for web based seminar-conducting a seminar or lecture via
the internet using graphics, text and live sound, unlike web casting, the audience
is able to interact with the presenter such as asking questions by sending an instant
message.
• Etc.
Data Communication Transmission medium
• A transmission medium can be defined as anything that can carry
information from source to destination OR a means by which
communication signal is carried from one system to another.
• Factors to consider when choosing a transmission media
Transmission rate
Distance
Cost and ease of installation
Resistance to Environmental conditions
Categories of transmission media
• Guided (Wired) also known as bounded media uses a cabling system that guides the data
signals along a specific path.
Types of guided (wired) transmission media are: Twisted-pair cable, Coaxial cable,
and Fiber-Optic cable.
Twisted-pair cables and Coaxial cables transport signals in the form of
electromagnetic waves
Fibre-Optic cable transport signals in the form of light
• Characteristics of Twisted-pair cable
Two wires twisted together, with one wire used for positive data signal and the other
wire used for negative data signal. The pair can range from from two onwards, e.g. 4-
pair cable, 8-pair cable, etc
Twisting the wires together decreases inference.
The two wires are opposite polarities, i.e. 180 degree out of phase and when
noise appears on both wires, it nulls/cancels itself.
They are classified using categories depending on the data speed that they can
support and the distance the data travels before it becomes weak.
Twisted pair cables are most effectively used in a system that uses a balanced
line method of transmission, (two conductors have equal impedence/resistance
to ground) Twisted pair cable can be Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)-cable with
shield or Unshielded Twisted Pair cable (UTP), i.e. cable without shield
• Unshielded twisted pair cable (UTP)-this is a twisted cable that doesn’t have a
shield to reduce electromagnetic interference. They are cheaper but they have high
attenuation and noise interference.
• Shielded twisted pair (STP): the cable has an aluminum foil shield after the outer
jacket. It has better tolerance to interference but is a bit expensive compared to
unshielded. The STP is mostly used on outdoor operations where we have more
interference and other environmental elements.
Parts and components of twisted pair cables
Outer jacket: this is the outer plastic cover that protects the
cable from environmental elements.
Braided or foil shield: this is a metallic mostly aluminum shield
that is used to reduce electromagnetic interference.
Copper cable: this is the copper wire that is used to transmit
signal and data.
Pair shield. This is a shield that covers each pair specifically.
Twisted pair cable color code
• Each pair is arranged to have one wire have a solid color while the
other has the color and white stripes.
• The first pair has white/blue and blue, followed by white/orange and
orange, white/green and green, and white/brown and brown.
• Cables are terminated to a connector or port such as Registered Jack
45 (RJ45).
Categories of twisted pair cables
• The twisted pair cables are grouped into 5 categories according to the
type of data transmitted and the maximum rate of transmission.
• Category Data Transmission rate Suitable for transmitting
Cat 1 Less than 1 Mbps Voice
Cat 2 1 Mbps Data
Cat 3 16 Mbps Data
Cat 4 20 Mbps Data
Cat 5 100 Mbps Data
Cat 6 200 Mbps and above Data
Advantages/Disadvantages of twisted pair
cables
• Advantages
 They are the most common network cables that are simple to use.
 Twisted pairs are cheaper compared to other network cables like coaxial.
 They have relatively fast data transfer when used in the Local Area Network.
 Twisted cables are used to transmit both audio and other multimedia data.

• Disadvantages
 The cables are affected by electromagnetic interference and noise. This is high on unshielded twisted pairs.
 They cover a short distance before the signal is distorted. The attenuation is around 100 meters. After that, the signal
becomes weak and should be boosted.
 Twisted pairs have limited bandwidth when compared to other types of cables such as coaxial or fiber cables.
 They are sensitive to eavesdropping and other security attacks. Can be tapped
 Low data transmission rates. The latest cable categories have high transmission speeds but for a shorter distance.
APPLICATIONS OF TWISTED PAIR
CABLES
• Home/Office networking.
• CCTV Camera.
• For those institutions that still used intercom (telephone
interconnecting offices), twisted pairs are the most preferred
types of cabling.
Co-Axial Cable
• Coaxial cable consists of two conductors.
• The inner conductor is contained inside the insulator with the outer conductor
weaved around it to provide shield.
• An insulating protective coating called a jacket covers the outer coating.
• The outer shield protects the inner conductor from outside electrical signals.
• The distance between the outer conductor (shield) and inner conductor plus the
type of material used for insulating the inner conductor determine the cable
properties or impedance/resistance.
• The excellent control of the impedance/resistance characteristics of the cable
allow higher data rates to be transferred than twisted pair cable.
Structure of co-axial cable
• Copper conductor: A central conductor, which consists of copper. The conductor
is the point at which data transmits.
• Insulator: Dielectric plastic insulation around the copper conductor. it is used to
maintain the spacing between the center conductor and shield.
• Braided mesh: A braided mesh of copper helps to shield from electromagnetic
interference, The braid provides a barrier against EMI moving into and out of the
coaxial cable.
• Protective plastic layer: An external polymer layer, which has a plastic coating.
It is used to protect internal layers from damages
Advantages/Disadvantages of Coaxial cable
 Advantages
Coaxial cables support high bandwidth.
It is easy to install coaxial cables.
Less affected by noise or cross-talk or electromagnetic inference.
Coaxial cables support multiple channels
 Disadvantages
 Coaxial cables are expensive.
 The coaxial cable must be grounded in order to prevent any crosstalk.
 As a Coaxial cable has multiple layers it is very bulky.
 There is a chance of breaking the coaxial cable and attaching a “t-joint” by
hackers, this compromises the security of the data. i.e. can be tapped
Applications of coaxial cables
Used for Television, Internet, Circuit Closed TV (CCTV), Video,
etc
Optic-Fibre Cable/Fibre-Optic cable
• Fiber optics, or optical fiber, refers to the technology that transmits information as light pulses
along a glass or plastic fiber.
• The core of this cable is located in the center, and the outside of the core is named as cladding.
Here cladding works like a protective layer.
• These two (cladding & core) are made with different types of plastic otherwise glass.
• When the light within the core strikes the border of the cladding in a less than 90 degrees angle,
then it bounces off. No light run away until it approaches the fiber end.
• Can carry information at frequencies in the visible light spectrum
• The device generating the message has it in electromagnetic form (electrical signal); this has to be
converted into light (i.e. optical signal) to send it on optic fiber cable. The process of converting
light to electric signal is done on the receiving side
Advantages/Disadvantages of Optic-Fibre cable
• Advantages
 Large Bandwidth: As the light rays have a very high frequency in GHz range, the bandwidth of the optical fiber is
extremely large. Bandwidth is higher than copper cables
 The optical cable is resistance for electromagnetic interference. Since the transmission takes place in the form
of light rays the signal is not affected due to any electrical or electromagnetic Interference.
 Less power loss and allows data transmission for longer distances
 Small size and light weight: The size of the optical fibers is very small. Therefore a large number of optical fibers
can fit into a cable of small diameter.
 High-Level Security. The optical fiber cable is very hard to tap because they don’t produce electromagnetic
energy. These cables are very secure while carrying or transmitting data
 Disadvantages
 The optical fiber cables are very difficult to merge & there will be a loss of the beam within the cable while
scattering.
 The Installation of these cables is costly. Special test equipment is often required to the optical fiber to
check the transmission of fiber cable.
 These cables are more delicate than copper wires.
UNGUIDED (WIRELESS)
TRANSMISSION MEDIUM
• Unguided media transport data without using a physical conductor. This type of
communication is often referred to as wireless communication.
• It uses wireless electromagnetic signals to send data.
• There are three types of Unguided Media
 Radio waves (electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 KHz and 1 GHz)
 Micro waves (electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 Ghz and 300 GHz)
 Infrared (Infrared signals with frequencies ranges from 300 GHz to 400 GHz can be used for
short range communication
PROPAGATION OF WIRELESS SIGNAL
• Wireless electromagnetic signals can be sent or propagated in three
ways:
Ground-wave propagation
Sky-wave propagation
Line-of-sight propagation
• Ground-wave propagation
 Covers the area between the earth surface and the ionosphere for signal transmission
 Ionosphere is the layer of the earth's atmosphere which contains a high concentration
of ions and free electrons and is able to reflect radio waves. It extends from about 80 km to
1,000 km above the earth's surface.
 Follows the earth’s contour and can transmit signals to a considerable distances.
 A signal propagation that takes place on the surface of the ground.
Applications of ground wave propagation
• They can be used for one way communication, for example from a military base to submerged
submarines as they penetrate to a significant depth into seawater
• In Amplitude Modulation (AM) radio, Television Broadcasting, etc.
• Frequencies up to 2 MHz.
• Advantages:
• These waves have the tendency to bend around the corners or obstructions during
propagation which makes them more efficient.
• Not affected by the change in atmospheric conditions.
• Disadvantages
• These are used to cover short ranges.
• Involves attenuation of waves as they interact with the eddy currents (current induced
within a conductor) produced by the surface of the earth.
• Sky-wave propagation-commonly known as skip.
It is either the reflected or refracted back waves to the earth from the
ionosphere, which is an electrically charged layer of the upper atmosphere.
Signal can travel a number of hops, back and forth between
ionosphere and earth‘s surface.
E.g. Mobile communications, Satellite communications and radar systems
Advantages of sky wave-propagation:
o Supports large distance propagation
o Attenuation due to atmospheric conditions are less
o Frequency is considerably high
• Disadvantages
o Long-distance propagation requires large ionized antennas.
o Due to the presence of the ionosphere near and far during night and day
respectively there exist variation in signal transmission in day and night.
• Line-of-sight propagation
a propagation in which two stations can only transmit and receive data signals
when they're in direct view of each other with no obstacles in between.
Transmitting and receiving antennas must be within line of sight.
• Applications are: Radar technology, some wireless communications.