Life

Sciences
Life Sciences:
 Life
Sciences

Scientific
Method
 Life
Sciences
1. The Scientific Method:

Introduction To the Scientific Method:

The process followed to answer questions about the world around us.
Consists of a series of steps that ensure that your investigation/experiment is fair,
and the results are reliable.
It standardizes scientific investigations so that scientists can feel confident that they will
stick to the facts and limit the influence of personal preconceived notations.
The scientific method consists of 6 basic steps.
1.1. The Scientific Method’s 6 Basic Steps:
1.1.1. Make observations 1.1.4. Form a hypothesis
1.1.2. Ask a question 1.1.5. Test the hypothesis
1.1.3. Do background research 1.1.6. Draw up a conclusion

1.1.1 The scientific process starts off with an observation,

i.e., you notice something interesting.

1.1.2 You then ask questions about it for example:

What is it? Why is it there?
What is it doing? What will happen if?
1.2. A hypothesis is a STATEMENT about what you think is going to happen.
The easiest way to write a hypothesis is to state what you think will happen.
It should always:-
Explain what you expect to happen
Be clear and understandable
Be testable
Be measurable
Contain the independent and dependent variables.
1.3. The Aim:.
Always Start your aim with: To…
It is normally written using some of the following phrases:
“To see…”
“To investigate…”
“To determine the relationship between…”
REMEMBER it must always include both independent and dependent variables.
 Life
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1.4 Variables:
Variables are factors/things that can vary and change.
In any experiment there are 3 variables:
An independent (or input) variable.
A dependent (or outcome) variable.
A fixed (or controlled) variable (factors that need to be kept the same).

1.4.1 Independent Variable:

This is the thing/factor that you decide to change.
It is the variable that is changed on purpose by you the investigator.
It is the factor that is going to affect the dependent variable.
1.4.2 Dependent Variables:
This is the variable (factor) that is affected by the independent variable.
This is the variable that you as an investigator will observe and measure.
An independent (or input) variable.
A dependent (or outcome) variable.
A fixed (or controlled) variable (factors that need to be kept the same).
1.4.3 Controlled (Fixes) Variable:
These are variables that need to be controlled/kept the same in order to ensure that only
one independent variable will affect the dependent variable.
This ensures a fair test. A fair test is the term scientists use to describe an investigation
in which there is only one independent variable.
1.5 The Control:
The control or control group is a second investigation set up exactly the same as the
experiment except for the independent variable being tested.
We need a control group to compare the results of the experiment to.
The control group is usually the norm (what you’d expect to find naturally in nature/
Where you have not manipulated the independent variable) and the experiment is usually the
The method should
apparatus in which you have manipulated the independent variable. be written so that a
1.6 Method: complete stranger
Rules for writing a method: will be able to carry
Write down the scientific method in numbered steps. out the same
The method should be written in the past tense.
procedure in the
exact same way and
The method must be clear and precise instructions including
get almost identical
the apparatus, exact measurements or quantities of chemicals or substances. results
Ensure that your method is written out in the correct sequence (order).
Give clear instructions how the result should be recorded.
Include safety precautions where possible
 Life
Sciences
1.7 Drawing Diagrams:
Drawing Rules:
Heading: Should be above the diagram and underlined.
Only draw with a sharp pencil (preferably HB, not darker).
No 3D drawings – only 2D. Draw what you see.
No sketchy lines or shading allowed, only stippling.
Label lines:
Use a ruler. Parallel to each other.
Done in pencil. End in line with each other.
Drawn to the right of the diagram. No arrows at the end of the label line.
Labels:
Written neatly next to the label line Written in pen
 In lowercase unless the part is named Identifies part of drawing.
after a person.
Remember: Size, Shape and Position

1.7.1 Drawing From Micrographs:

When drawing a specimen from a photomicrograph, it is very important to follow the rules for
Drawing diagrams in Life sciences and to take note of the following:.
The title should state what has been drawn and what lens power it was drawn under.
Title must be informative, centered, and larger than other text.
The title should always include the scientific name (which is italicized or underlined).
Draw what is seen; not what should be there. Avoid making “idealized” drawings.
Do not draw everything that is seen in the field of view. Draw only what is asked for.
Draw only as much as necessary for an understanding of the structure – a small section in
detail will often suffice.
Include how many times larger the drawing is compared to life size and a scale line that
Indicates relative size.
1.7.2 Tables:
Tables sort data for the purpose of analysing it so that comparisons, relationships and
Graphs can be drawn
Heading:
Must contain both the independent and dependent variables.
Be underlined.
1st Column:
Is always the independent variable.
Must have the unit of measurement (if it is given).
2nd Column:
Is always the dependent variable.
Must have the unit of measurement (if it is given).

The independent variable must be in line with the correct dependent variable data.
1.7.3 Graphs:
Graphs are used to visually represent relationships from tables/data.
Graphs should have:
A heading, written at the top of the top of the graph and be underlined and mention both
The independent and dependent variable.
Both axes must be fully labeled with the standard unit of measurement.
The X axis should indicate the independent variable.
The Y axis should indicate the dependent variable.
Scales should be chosen according to the data given and be plotted in multiples, starting at
zero.
Always start your Y-axis multiple at zero.
1.7.3.1 Line Graphs and Double Line Graph:
Line graphs are used to represent data where the independent variable and dependent
variable are numerical (numbers) and continuous (ongoing).
1.7.3.1 Bar Graphs:
Are used to represent data where the independent variable is a category or description.
Bar graphs should:
Have bars of the same width.
Have spaces of the same width between the bars.
Have a space between the Y-axis and the 1st bar.(The 1st bar should not touch the Y-axis).
Have a key if necessary.
1.7.3.2 Double Bar Graphs:
Used to display a comparison in data where the independent variable is a category or
description.
Double bar graphs should always have a key.
1.7.4. Histogram:
Are used to show data where the independent variable represents a data range.
In Histograms:
The bars always touch the y-axis. No spaces between bars.
The bars should all be the same colour. The bars should be the same width.
1.7.5. Pie Charts:
Are used when the data forms part of a whole or when the data represent 360 or 100%
Pie Charts:
Should always have a heading with both variables correctly mentioned.
All calculations must be shown.
Must have a key.
When drawing a pie chart:
Use a protractor.
Start at 12 o’clock and work clockwise.
Draw the largest sector first and the work in descending order.
 Life
Sciences
1.8 Relationship between variables:
The easiest way to write a relationship is to start the sentence with as and state how the
variable.
The easiest way to write a relationship is to start the sentence with as and state how the
independent variable affects the dependent variable.
1.9 Conclusion:
A summary of what you found out.
Always look at your results, graph or chart to decide what you discovered and then state
whether your hypothesis is correct or incorrect.
The easiest way to write up a conclusion is to answer the investigative question in the past
tense.
 Life
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1.10 Reliability:
The idea behind reliability is that the results must be more than once-off and be repeatable.
Other researchers must be able to perform the same investigation, under the same
conditions and generate the same results.
To increase the readability of an investigation, the following answers may apply, depending on
the nature of the investigation:
Repeat the investigation.
Take many readings and use averages.
Randomly select a sample.
Increase the sample size.
Increase the period of the investigation
 Life
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1.11 Validity:
Questions how the investigation was carried out.
All the variables must be kept the same except the independent variables.
To increase the validity of the investigation, variables that were not fixed or controlled should
be identified:
The same amount of...
Same time...
Same apparatus...
 Life
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1.12 Magnification, Size and Scale Bars:
Cells are extremely small but knowing the sizes of objects viewed under microscopes can be
really useful.
With a compound microscope, the magnification is the product of both lenses, so if micro-
scope has a 10x eyepiece and a 40x objective, the total magnification is 400x
Magnification Is:
Defined as the ratio of the size of the image to the size of the object.
We us micrometers for specimen size under the microscope.
The Conversion Is:
1mm=1000m(micrometers)
1.12.1. Magnification Ratio:
Depending on the information given or found on a micrograph, we can work out either the:
Magnification, or the
Actual size of the specimen.
1.12.1.1. Calculating The Magnification, Using The Scale Bar:
Step A: Measure the length of the scale bar in millimeters (mm).
= 32mm
Step B: Convert the answer into m (same as scale bar).
= 32mm x 1000m (remember that 1mm = 1000m)
= 32 000m
Step C: Divide the scale bar length in m by the actual size of the bar.
= 32 000m  100m
= 320x
Therefore, the image has been magnified 320x
1.12.1.1. Calculating The Actual Size, Using The Scale Bar:
Step A: Measure the length of the specimen in millimeters (mm).
= 83mm
Step B: Measure the length of the scale bar in millimeters (mm).
= 32mm
Step C: Divide the length of the specimen by the length of the scale bar.
= 83mm  32mm
= 2.6
Step D: Multiply the actual size of the scale bar by the answer from the previous step.
= 100m x 2.6
= 260m
Therefore, the actual size of the specimen is 260m
1.12.1.1. Calculating The Actual Size, Using The Magnification:
Step A: Measure the length of the specimen in millimeters (mm).
= 83 mm
Step B: Convert the length of the specimen to micrometers (m)
= 83 mm x 1000 m (remember that 1mm = 1000m).
= 82 000 m
Step C: Divide the length of the specimen by the length of the magnification which is given.
= 83 000 mm  320
= 260 m
Therefore, the actual size of the specimen is 260m.
 Life
Sciences

Photosynthesis
 Life
Sciences
2. Photosynthesis:

The word “photo” means light and “synthesis” means to make.

Radiant energy (from the sun), water (from the soil), carbon dioxide (from the atmosphere), combine in the

chlorophyll of the chloroplast in the leaf to form oxygen (which is released into the atmosphere) and sugar (glucose).

All living organisms depend on photosynthesis for the energy that they require.

Photosynthesis occurs in all green plants as well as some bacteria and algae.
 This is usually shown as the following equations:

Sun’s energy

Chlorophyll
2.1 The Chloroplast:

Is the organelle in which photosynthesis takes place.

2.1.1. Diagram of Chloroplast:

When Drawing a Diagram of a Chloroplast, You Must Remember The Following:

2.1.1.1 Heading: Should be above the diagram and underlined.

Only draw with a sharp pencil (preferably HB not darker).

Use a ruler when drawing a man-made object. Draw free hand when drawing a natural object.

No 3D drawings – only 2D. Draw what you see.

No sketchy lines or shading allowed, only stippling.

2.1.1.2 Label Lines:

Use a ruler. Parallel to each other.

Done in pencil. End in line with each other.

Drawn to the right of the diagram. No arrows at the end of the label lines.
 Labels:

Written neatly next to the label line. In lowercase unless the part is named after a person.

Written in pen. Identifies part of the drawing.

Remember Size, Shape and Position.

2.1.2 Structural Suitability of a Chloroplast:

outer membrane
intermembrane
inner membrane
stroma (aqueous fluid)
lumen (inside of thylakoid)
lamella
thylakoid
granum (stack of thylakoids)
2.1.2.1 Has a double membrane:

Which is permeable to oxygen, CO2, water and glucose.

Evidence of endosymbiosis
2.1.2.2 Stroma:
Has appropriate enzymes and a suitable pH for the Calvin cycle.
Has ribosomes that makes enzymes which control the light.
Known as the independent phase of photosynthesis.
Contains starch grains which stores starch for later use.
2.1.2.3 Thylakoid:
Has ETC and ATP synthase for photophosphorylation.
Contains chlorophyll needed for photosynthesis.
2.1.2.4 Garum:
Flat membrane stacks increase SA: Vol ratio and small internal volumes quickly accumulate ions
Stacks of thylakoids, a single stack is called grana.

Increases the surface of light absorption.

2.1.2.5 Lamella:
Connects and separates thylakoid stacks (grana).
2.2 Requirements of Photosynthesis:
The first criterion needed for photosynthesis to take place.
2.2.1 Requirement 1: Radiant Energy:
How leaves are structured for quick and easy radiant absorption:
Leaves are strategically positioned to be exposed to
the maximum amount of sunlight as possible.
The leaves are flat with a large surface area to ensure
maximum amount of sunlight can be absorbed.
The leaf is thin, to ensure quick easy access to the
palisade mesophyll layers of cells, where chloroplast is situated.
The cuticle and the epidermal layer are transparent,
which allows easy access of the radiant energy.
The chloroplasts are situated just underneath the epidermal,
layer to ensure the radiant energy is quickly absorbed by the
chlorophyll.
The numerous chloroplasts and they are placed longitudinally in the mesophyll layer – this ensures that they can
be packed tightly and offer a bigger surface area for the absorption of the radiant energy.
2.2.2 Requirement 2: Water:
Water plays a vital role in the process of photosynthesis.
It needs to be moved from the ground to the root hairs, to the xylem,
up to the leaf, to the mesophyll layer and finally into the chloroplast.
This process happens as follows:
Water moves out of the ground into the xylem of the root hairs by means of osmosis.
This water then travels via the xylem to the leaf by means of transpiration pull.
The water then moves from the xylem in the leaf to the mesophyll cells by means of
diffusion.
Finally, the water moves into the chloroplast by means of osmosis.
2.2.3 Requirement 3: Carbon Dioxide:
Carbon dioxide enters the leaf through the stomata of the leaf.
Carbon dioxide diffuses into the leaf through the stomata, which in turn are opened and closed by means of their,
guard cells.
The carbon dioxide moves from the stomata, through the intercellular air spaces in the spongy mesophyll and
dissolves in the moisture in these air spaces.
The carbon dioxide then diffuses into the chloroplasts which are situated in the palisade mesophyll layer.
 Life
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The stomata therefore regulate the amount of carbon dioxide that the plant takes in by opening and closing.

Stoma – Open: guard cells

chloroplast

outer thin wall

stomatal pore

nucleus

vacuole

inner thick wall

epidermal cell
 Life
Sciences
The stomata therefore regulate the amount of carbon dioxide that the plant takes in by opening and closing.

Stoma – Closed: guard cells

chloroplast

outer thin wall

stomatal pore
nucleus
vacuole
Inner thick wall

epidermal cell
 Life
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2.3 Phases of Photosynthesis:

There are two phases to the process of photosynthesis.

The Light Phase: takes place in the presence of light (light-dependent)

The Dark Phase: this can take place in dark or light (light-independent). This phase is also known as the Calvin

Cycle.

2.3.1 The Light Phase:

takes place in the GRANA of the chloroplasts.

Radiant energy from the sun is absorbed by the chlorophyll molecules of the thylakoids. This energy now

undergoes a chemical process to change it into chemical energy.

This chemical energy is now used to split the water molecule up (by means of PHOTOLYSIS) into:

1. Energy-rich hydrogen atoms - these are used in the dark phase

2. Oxygen atoms - these are released into the atmosphere for us to breathe.
A result of this process is the formation of the energy carrier ATP, which is also used in the dark phase.

So energy is formed in the light phase but carried by ATP to the dark phase to be used there.
 What is ATP?

A form of stored energy (potential energy).

It stands for Adenosine Tri Phosphate.

Each phosphate is bonded by means of

a chemical process – this process stores energy.

When a phosphate is broken/removed from

the molecule, energy is released.

2.3.2 The Dark Phase:

Takes place in the STROMA of the chloroplast.

Carbon dioxide (from the atmosphere), combines with the energy-rich Hydrogen atoms (made in the light phase)

by using energy that is released from ATP (energy was made in the light phase).

This results in energy-rich carbohydrates (glucose) being

formed. Any excess glucose is converted to starch for storage.

One molecule of glucose contains six carbon molecules,

so this cycle has to be repeated six times in order to make one

molecule of glucose.
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2.4 Summary of the Process

2.4.1 The Light Phase (Light – Dependent Phase):

Occurs in the grana of the chloroplast.

Chlorophyll molecules absorbed radiant energy.

Some energy is used to split water into hydrogen and

oxygen.

This process is also known as photolysis.

Oxygen is released via some pores.

Energized hydrogen is taken up by a carrier to the

next stage.

The energy formed is carried by the ATP to the

dark phase to be used there.

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2.4 Summary of the Process

2.4.1 The Dark Phase (Calvin Cycle):

Occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast.

Occurs immediately after the light phase.

Carbon dioxide enters the leaf through the stomatal

pores.

Carbon dioxide combines with the energised hydrogen

to form glucose.

The energy required for this phase comes from the

light phase.
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2.5 The Importance of Photosynthesis:

Keeps the entire planet alive and functioning correctly.

Photosynthesis:

Keeps the oxygen levels in the atmosphere constant, as it is released during photosynthesis and can be used for

cellular respiration.

Keeps the carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere constant, as the carbon dioxide that is released during cellular

respiration is absorbed during photosynthesis.

Provides food for heterotrophic organisms.

Makes chemical energy available for cell functioning.

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2.6 Factors that Affect the Rate of Photosynthesis:
Photosynthesis can happen at a fast or slow rate, depending on a number of factors:
2.6.1 Light Intensity:
In general, an increase in light intensity causes an increase in the rate of photosynthesis.

However, at a certain level, if the light intensity becomes too high, the stoma will close, and the carbon dioxide

becomes a limiting factor, as it is no longer available.

2.6.2 Temperature:
Plants photosynthesize best at a temperature of 25°C.

At lower temperatures, the enzymes involved in photosynthesis become inactive.

At a temperature that is too high, the enzymes denature and the stomata closes.

2.6.3 Carbon Dioxide Concentration:

As carbon dioxide concentration increases so the rate of photosynthesis increases up to an optimum point then

the rate of photosynthesis drops.

Happens because excess carbon dioxide combines with water to form carbonic acid which damages enzymes that

control photosynthesis.
.

Life
Sciences
2.7 Greenhouses:
A structure with a glass or plastic roof and/or walls, where plants are cultivated.
2.7.1 Objective of a Greenhouse:
To produce ideal conditions for maximum photosynthesis of plants to occur.

Optimal levels of carbon dioxide, light and temperature are provided for the growing plants.
2.7.1.1 These Ideal Conditions are Regulated in The Following Ways:

A photometer can be used to determine the light intensity. Necessary changes can then be made to the levels of

transparency of the roof and walls.

If temperatures are too high, improved ventilation will need to be affected, e.g., a large door, fans etc.

If temperatures are too low, a heating system needs to be put in place.

Carbon dioxide levels can be increased by pumping this gas into the greenhouse. Alternatively, the addition of

sodium bicarbonate, or the addition of organic materials to the soil, will increase the carbon dioxide levels.

Decomposers will become more active and therefore more carbon dioxide will be released.
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Life
Sciences
2.8 Photosynthesis Experiments:

2.8.1 Starch is Produced During Photosynthesis Experiment:

2.8.1.1 Aim:

Test whether starch is produced during photosynthesis:

2.8.1.2 Method:

Conduct the investigation on a green leaf that has been exposed to sunlight for a few hours.

Place the leaf in a beaker of boiling water for 10 to 30 seconds. This will soften the leaf and kill the cells as it stops
metabolism. It also makes the cells permeable to alcohol and iodine solution.

Place the leaf in a test tube with ethanol (alcohol).

Let the test tube stand in a beaker of boiling water (water bath) for about 10 minutes.

Extinguish the Bunsen burner for safety reasons. Alcohol is highly flammable and should not be heated over an
open flame.
Chlorophyll is soluble in alcohol and will be extracted from the leaf. The leaf will turn white and become brittle.
Remove the brittle leaf (it will crumble easily) from the alcohol and rinse it in water to soften it.
2.8.1 Starch is Produced During Photosynthesis Experiment:

2.8.1.3 Result:

The color changes from light brown to blue-black.

2.8.1.4 Deduction:

Starch is present because the iodine solution becomes blue-black in the presence of starch..

2.8.1.5 Conclusion:

Photosynthesis occurred and starch was produced.

2.8.1.6 Diagrams of the Experiment:

Apparatus Diagram: Experiment Diagram:

2.8.2 Light is Necessary for Photosynthesis Experiment:

2.8.2.1 Aim:

To determine whether light is essential for photosynthesis.

2.8.2.2 Method:

De-starch a potted plant with green leaves (place the plant in a dark cupboard for 48 hours).

Cover a portion of a leaf with tin foil. (The leaf must remain attached to the plant.)

Place the plant in the sun for approximately 48 hours.

Pick the leaf and remove the foil.

Test for the presence of starch

2.8.2.3 Results:

The iodine solution in the control remains light brown.

The iodine solution in the experiment turns from light brown to blue-black.

2.8.2.4 Deduction:

The parts that are blue-black contain starch due to photosynthesis.

2.8.2.5 Conclusion:

Light is essential for photosynthesis

2.8.2 Light is Necessary for Photosynthesis Experiment:

2.8.2.6 Diagrams of the Experiment:

2.8.3 Carbon Dioxide is Necessary for Photosynthesis Experiment:

2.8.3.1 Aim:

To determine whether carbon dioxide is essential for photosynthesis.

2.8.3.2 Method:

De-starch two potted geraniums by placing the plants in a dark cupboard for 48 hours.

Set up the apparatus as shown in the above illustration.

Soda lime is used to absorb CO2 from the air flowing in.

Sodium hydroxide is used to absorb CO2 from the air in the bell jar.

Sodium bicarbonate is used to release CO2 into the air in the bell jar.

Water both plants well and place them in the sun for at least 24 hours.

Take a leaf from each plant and test for the presence of starch

2.8.3.3 Results:

A (experiment) : Iodine solution turns from light brown to blue-black

B (control) : Iodine solution remains light brown.

Light is essential for photosynthesis

2.8.3 Carbon Dioxide is Necessary for Photosynthesis Experiment:

2.8.3.4 Deduction:

A: Starch is produced; photosynthesis takes place in the presence of CO2.

B: No starch is produced; no photosynthesis could take place in the absence of CO2.

2.8.3.5 Conclusion:

CO2 is essential for photosynthesis

2.8.3.6 Diagrams of the Experiment:

2.8.4 Chlorophyll is Necessary for Photosynthesis Experiment:

2.8.4.1 Aim:

To test whether chlorophyll is essential for photosynthesis.

2.8.4.2 Method:

Place a potted plant with variegated leaves (white and green parts) in the sun for a few hours.

Remove one of the leaves.

Test for the presence of starch.

2.8.4.3 Results:

Control - (white part) : iodine solution remains light brown.

Experiment - (green part) : iodine solution turns from light brown to blue-black.

2.8.4.4 Deduction:

The parts of the leaf that turn blue-black contain starch, because photosynthesis took place.

2.8.4.5 Conclusion:

Chlorophyll is essential for photosynthesis.

2.8.3 Chlorophyll is Necessary for Photosynthesis Experiment:

2.8.3.6 Diagrams of the Experiment:

2.8.5 Oxygen is Produced During Photosynthesis Experiment:

2.8.5.1 Aim:

To test whether oxygen is released from photosynthesis.

2.8.5.2 Method:

Set up the apparatus as illustrated and place it in the sun.

You can dissolve a small amount of sodium bicarbonate in the water. This causes a higher concentration of CO2 in

the water and accelerates the rate of photosynthesis.

After a while, gas bubbles collect in the test tube. Once enough gas has collected, lift the test tube from the end of the

funnel but keep it under the water. Seal the test tube tightly with a stopper and remove the test tube from the water.

Insert a glowing wooden splint into the test tube.

2.8.5.3 Results:

The glowing splint ignites.

2.8.5.4 Deductions:

Oxygen is present in the test tube.

2.8.5.5 Conclusions:

Oxygen is produced during photosynthesis

2.8.5 Oxygen is Produced During Photosynthesis Experiment:

2.8.5.6 Diagrams of the Experiment:

 Life
Sciences

Animal
Nutrition
 Life
Sciences
3.1 Animal Nutrition Important Terminology:

3.1.1 Term: Description:

Herbivore Animal that only eats plants or parts of plants.

Carnivore Animal that eats only other animals or the remains of other animals.

Omnivore Animal that eats plants, animals, or dead animal flesh.

Bolus A ball-like mixture of food and saliva in the mouth during the process of chewing.

Bile A fluid produced by the live, and stored in the gall bladder, that aids the digestion of lipids

in the small intestine.

Exocrine gland A gland that uses ducts and transports secretions or chemicals out of the body or onto

body surfaces.

Endocrine gland An organ that secretes hormones directly into the blood stream or lymphatic system

instead of through ducts

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3.1.2 Term: Description:

Peristalsis An automatic wave of muscle contraction and relaxation that moves food in one direction

through the digestive tract.

Chyme A semi-liquid mass of partially digested food which has gone through mechanical and

chemical digestive processes while passing through the stomach into the duodenum.

Villus (pl. vili) Tiny finger-like projections lining the wall of the small intestine and increasing the surface

Area for food absorption.

Ingestion Intake of food.

Digestion Physical and chemical breakdown of food into its simplest form.

Absorption The products of digestion diffuse into the blood stream.

Assimilation Nutrients such as amino acids are incorporated into the cells through the digestive tract.
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3.1.3 Term: Description:

Egestion/defecation The removal of undigested and unabsorbed waste from the body through the anus in the

form of feces.

Enzyme A protein that acts as a catalyst to regulate or speed up most biochemical reactions in

living cells.

Emulsion A fine dispersion of minute droplets of one liquid (e.g., fats and oils) in another which it is

not soluble or miscible.

Lacteal A lymph capillary in the villi of the small intestine where fats are absorbed.

Deamination Removal of an amino group from amino acids.

Metabolism The chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to maintain life.

Homeostatsis The ability of an organism to maintain the stability of internal conditions

(e.g., temperature, chemical balance) despite changes in its environment.

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3.1.4 Term: Description:

Negative feedback Mechanisms in the human body that detect changes or imbalances in the internal

mechanism conditions and restore homeostatis.

Insulin A hormone made in the pancreas and released into the blood to help convert glucose to

to glycogen to reduce blood glucose.

Glucagon A hormone made by the pancreas that raises blood glucose levels by converting stored

glycogen to glucose.

Glycogen Form in which glucose is stored in the liver and cells.

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3.2. Necessity of food

Unlike plants which are autotrophs and are able to produce their own organic material for energy

Animals are heterotrophs and are unable to produce their own organic materials.

They are therefore dependent on other organisms for their organic nutrients.

All animals need to eat food to give them nutrients that they will use every day.

An animal’s digestive system is designed to break down and absorb these nutrients.

3.2.1 The Importance of Energy and Organic Nutrients From Food:

Provides energy.

Used for growth of new tissue or repair of damaged tissue.

Regulation of body processes, e.g., cellular respiration and excretion.

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3.3. Dentition:

3.3.1 There Are Four Main Types Of Teeth Found In Animals Namely:

Incisors.

Canines.

Premolars

Molars and carnassial.

3.3.1.1 Type of Teeth, Their Structures and Functions:

3.3.1.1.1 Incisors:

Chisel-shaped.

Used for biting or cutting of food.

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3.3.1.1 Type of Teeth, Their Structures and Functions:

3.3.1.1.2 Canines:

Pointed

Used for catching, holding, tearing, and/or killing prey.

3..3.1.1.3 Premolars:

Flat and uneven.

Used for grinding and crushing of food.

3.3.1.1.4 Molars:

Flat and uneven

Used for grinding and crushing of food.

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3.3.1.1 Type of Teeth, Their Structures and Functions:

3.3.1.1.5 Carnassial teeth:

Specialized morals and premolars with jagged, triangular edges.

Used for cutting meat.

3.3.2
2.1.2.3
The Human Dental Formula:

2.1.2.3
3.3.2.1 This Means:

One half of the upper jaw has two incisors, one canine, two premolars and three molars.

The corresponding lower jaw has the same teeth.

The complete upper jaw therefore has 8 x 2 = 16 teeth, while the complete lower jaw also has 16 teeth.

The complete permanent set therefore consists of 32 teeth.

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3.4. Modes of Nutrition in Animals:

Animals are classified into three groups according to the food they eat, i.e. herbivores, carnivores and omnivores.

3.4.1 Herbivore:

An animal that eats only plants or parts of plants.

3.4.1.1. Herbivores' Teeth Are Adapted In The Following Ways:

Incisors are sharp to cut off plant material.

Canines/fangs are often absent.

Premolars and molars are large and flat to grind plant material.

3.4.1.2 Examples of Herbivores are:

Sheep/cattle Some birds

Antelope Giraffes
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3.5. Modes of Nutrition in Animals:

Animals are classified into three groups according to the food they eat, i.e. herbivores, carnivores and omnivores.

3.5.2 Carnivores:

An animal that eats only other animals or the remains of other animals.

3.5.2.1. Carnivores' Teeth Are Adapted In The Following Ways:

Incisors have sharp ends to bite off food

Canines/fangs are long and strong to pierce, kill and tear prey apart.

Premolars and molars have protrusions with sharp edges to cut off the food.

3.5.2.2 Examples of Carnivores are:

Sharks Leopards

Lions Crocodiles
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3.5. Modes of Nutrition in Animals:

Animals are classified into three groups according to the food they eat, i.e. herbivores, carnivores and omnivores.

3.5.3 Omnivores:

An animal that eats plants, animals or dead animal flesh

3.5.3.1 Omnivores' Teeth Are Adapted In The Following Ways:

Omnivores' teeth are very similar to those of carnivores, except that their molars do not have such prominent

protrusions.

Baboons and pigs possess well-developed canines/fangs which are used mainly for self-defence and social display

(baboons).

3.5.3.2 Examples of Omnivores are:

Pigs Baboons
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3.6. Human Digestive system:

The digestive system is responsible for 3.6.1. Digestive System:

breaking down complex molecules

into their simplest forms to be absorbed into

the body to sustain life.

The human digestive system is made up

of an alimentary canal (tube from mouth

to anus) and accessory organs (e.g.,

liver, pancreas) that aid in the digestive

process.
3.6. Human Digestive system:

3.6.2 Structure of The Digestive System:

3.6. Human Digestive system:

3.6.2 Functions of Parts of The Digestive System:

3.6.2.1 Salivary Glands:

Secrets saliva and enzymes.

3.6.2.2 Mouth:

Ingestion.

3.6.2.3 Tong:

Helps with chewing and tasting.

3.6.2.4 Oesophagus:

Takes food bolus from mouth to stomach

3.6.2.5 Cardiac Sphincter:

Keeps stomach closed

3.6.2.6 Stomach:

Breaks down food mechanically and chemically.

3.6.2 Functions of Parts of The Digestive System:

3.6.2.7 Liver:

Receives, processes and stores absorbed nutrients.

Makes bile for fat emulsification.

3.6.2.8 Pyloric Sphincter:

Keeps the stomach closed.

3.6.2.9 Gall Blader

Stores bile until it is needed.

3.6.3. Large and Small Intestines:

3.6.3.1 Diagram of The Large Intestines:

3.6.3. Large and Small Intestines:

3.6.3.1.1 Functions of the Parts of The Large Intestines:

3.6.3.1.1.1 Ileo-Caecal Valve:

Allows one-wat movement of food.

3.6.3.1.1.2 Caecum:

Absorption of water and salts.

Secretes mucus which is mixed into faeces.

3.6.3.1.1.3 Appendix:

Unidentified function.

Possibly stores good bacteria.

3.6.3. Large and Small Intestines:

3.6.3.2 Diagram of The Small Intestines:

Diagram of the Small Intestines

3.6.3. Large and Small Intestines:

3.6.3.1.1 Functions of the Parts of The Small Intestines:

3.6.3.2.1.1 Duodenum:

1st part of the small intestine.

Receives bile and pancreatic juice.

3.6.3.2.1.2 Jejunum:

Secretes intestinal juice that contains enzymes

3.6.3.2.1.3 Ileum:

Secretes intestinal juice.

The most digestion and absorption takes place here..

3.6.3.2.1.4 Rectum:

Stores faeces.

3.6.3.2.1.5 Anus:

Sphincter muscle controlling egestion/defaecation.

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3.7. The Alimentary Canal:

A muscular tube, which extends from the mouth to the anus.

3.7.1 The human digestive system comprises of the following:

3.7.1.1.1 Structure and Function of The Mouth:

The mouth is the upper opening of the alimentary canal.

The opening of the mouth is surrounded by two fleshy lips.

The cavity on the inside is known as the mouth cavity.

3.7.1.1.2 The Mouth Cavity Consists of:

Teeth which breaks down and grind food.

Tong which mixes food and is used for swallowing off food.

Hard and soft palate forms the roof of the mouth.

Salivary glands release saliva which contains enzymes, carbohydrates, to chemically break down carbohydrates
3.7.1 The human digestive system comprises of the following:

3.7.1.2.1 Structure and Function of The Pharynx:

Back of the mouth cavity opens into the pharynx.

This leads to two openings:

the opening leading to the oesophagus.

the opening leading to the trachea (windpipe).

3.7.1.2.2 Function :

The pharynx is the common passage for food and air from the

mouth to the oesophagus and the trachea.

3.7.1 The human digestive system comprises of the following:

3.7.1.3.1 Structure and Function of The Oesophagus:

The oesophagus is a hollow, muscular tube that

connects the pharynx to the stomach.

The oesophagus is located behind the trachea.

3.7.1.3.2 Function :

The muscles in the wall of the oesophagus are

responsible for peristaltic movements, which push

the food bolus forward.

3.7.1 The human digestive system comprises of the following:

5.1.4.1 Structure and Function of The Stomach:

The stomach is a sickle-shaped, sac-like organ that is located just below the diaphragm.

The stomach wall is thick and muscular.

At the top, the opening to the oesophagus is closed by the cardiac sphincter OR oesophageal sphincter.

At the lower end the opening to the small intestine is closed by the pyloric sphincter.

5.1.4.2 Function :

The muscular wall causes churning movements that assist

with physical digestion and also ensure that the food is mixed

with gastric juices

The glands in the stomach will secrete gastric juices

(hydrochloric acid – HCI) for digestion

5.1 The human digestive system comprises of the following:

5.1.4.1 Structure and Function of The Small Intestine:

5.1.4.1.1 The small intestine is a long, muscular tube of approximately 5 m to 6 m in length which consists of three parts:

Duodenum: the first and shortest part of the small intestine – the common bile duct from the gall bladder and the

pancreatic duct from the pancreas opens as a joint tube in the duodenum.

Jejunum: the middle part of the small intestine.

Ileum: the last and longest part of the small intestine, joints the first part of the large intestine, i.e., the caecum -

the opening between the ileum and the caecum is closed by a ring muscle, the ileo-caecal sphincter.
5.1 The human digestive system comprises of the following:

5.1.4.1 Structure and Function of The Small Intestine:

5.1.4.1.1 The wall of the intestine consists of four layers:

The serous membrane: the outer connective tissue layer.

A muscle layer (muscularis ) that consists of :

An outer layer of longitudinal muscles.

An inner layer of circular muscles.

The submucosa: a layer of connective tissue with blood vessels, lymph vessels, nerves and glands.

The mucosa: the innermost layer, has transverse folds, there are millions of finger-like, villi, projections on these folds.
5.1 The human digestive system comprises of the following:

5.1.4.1 Structure and Function of The Small Intestine:

5.1.4.2 The Functions of The Small Intestines:

The layer of muscles in the wall of the small intestines causes peristaltic movements, which moves the chyme

forward and ensures that it becomes thoroughly mixed with the digestive juices.

Glands in the duodenal wall (crypts of Lieberkühn and Brunner glands) secrete digestive juices (intestinal juices),

which play a role in digestion.

The small intestine has millions of villi to increase the surface area for the absorption of digested nutrients.
5.1 The human digestive system comprises of the following:

5.1.4.1 Structure of The Villus:

A villus is surrounded by a single layer

of columnar epithelial cells.

In the columnar epithelium there are

goblet cells that secrete mucus.

- On the surface of the columnar epithelial

cells there are microscopic projections, known

as microvilli.

- In the center there is a capillary lymph vessel,

the lacteal.

- An arteriole brings blood to the villus and forms

a capillary network that surrounds the lacteal.

- The capillaries join together and leave the villus as a venule.

5.1 The human digestive system comprises of the following:

5.1.4.1 Structure and Function of The Large Intestine:

5.1.4.1.1 The Colon Consists of Three Parts:

Caecum: the sac-like structure where it joins the small

intestine - a small appendage is attached to the caecum,

the appendix

Colon - this is the largest part of the large intestine -

consists of the ascending, transverse, and descending colon.

Rectum - this is the last muscular portion of the colon

- it ends with an opening on the outside, the anus.

5.1.4.2 Functions of The Large Intestines:

The large intestine secretes large amounts of mucus to aid egestion.

Water and useful substances (certain vitamins and bile salts) are absorbed from the semi-solid waste in the colon.

Undigested waste (faeces) is stored temporarily in the colon before it is egested via the anus.
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6. Accessory Organs of Digestion and Their Roles in the Digestive Process:

The tongue, salivary glands, liver, gall bladder, and pancreas aid the processes of ingestion, digestion, and absorption.

6.1. The Tongue:

The tongue is a muscular organ; the back of the tongue is attached to the mouth floor.

There are small projections on the tongue called papillae; this is where the taste buds occur.

6.1.1 The Structure of The Tongue:

6.1. The Tongue:

6.1.1 The Structure of The Tongue:

6.1.2 The Functions of The Tongue:

It has taste buds and serves as a taste organ.

It helps with the chewing process by pressing food against the hard palate and between the teeth.

This ensures that chewed food mixes with saliva.

It rolls the food into a bolus (ball).

It helps with the swallowing process as it pushes the food bolus towards the opening of the throat.

It has taste buds and serves as a taste organ.

6.1. The Salivary Glands:

The salivary glands open into the mouth cavity.

6.1.1. There Are Three Pairs Of Salivary Glands:

Parotid salivary glands (located below the ears).

Submandibular salivary glands (located in the lower jaw).

Sublingual salivary glands (located under the tongue).

6.1.2 The Structure and Functions of The Salivary Glands:

They produce and secrete saliva via

ducts that open into the mouth cavity.

6.1. The Pancreas:

The pancreas is a tongue-shaped gland located just below the stomach.

6.1.1 The Pancreas is composed of two types of cells:

Normal pancreatic cells that secrete the

digestive juice, pancreatic juice

The islets of Langerhans that secrete two

hormones, namely insulin and glucagon.

6.1.2 The Structure of The Pancreas:

Pancreatic juice is transported via the pancreatic duct,

which joins the common bile duct.

The common bile and pancreatic duct opens into the

duodenum.

The pancreas is both an exocrine gland and an

endocrine gland.
6.1. The Pancreas:

The pancreas is a tongue-shaped gland located just below the stomach.

6.1.2 The Functions of The Pancreas:

It secretes pancreatic juice with enzymes

which play a role in digestion.

It secretes insulin and glucagon which control the

blood glucose levels in the body.

Exocrine function: Normal pancreatic cells

secrete pancreatic juice into the pancreatic duct,

which opens into the duodenum.

Endocrine function: Islets of Langerhans secrete

the hormones insulin and glucagon directly into the

bloodstream.
6.1. The Liver:

The liver is the largest gland in the body and is located just below the diaphragm

6.1.2 The Structure of The Liver:

The liver consists of two lobes, a large right

lobe and a smaller left lobe.

Each lobe is made up of tiny lobules that in

turn consist of liver cells.

The liver cells produce bile that is transported

away from the liver via the common hepatic duct.

The common hepatic duct forms a branch, the

cystic duct, which transports bile to the gall bladder for storage.

The common hepatic duct and cystic ducts join to form the common bile duct.

The common bile duct joins the pancreatic duct to open into the duodenum.
6.1. The Liver:

6.1.3 The Functions of The Liver:

The liver produces bile, which is store in the storage gall bladder

Glucose is converted into glycogen for storage in the liver

Any excess glucose is converted into fat and stored.

Excess amino acids are broken down to form

urea and glucose in the liver by a process called deamination.

The common hepatic duct and cystic ducts join to form the

common bile duct.

The common bile duct joins the pancreatic duct to open into the duodenum.

The liver is a detoxifying organ that absorbs and neutralises certain toxins such as alcohol.

Vitamins A, D, E, K and B12 are stored in the liver.

The liver synthesises heparin which prevents blood clotting.

6.1. The Gall Bladder:

The liver is the largest gland in the body and is located just below the diaphragm

6.1.2 The Structure of The Gall Bladder:

The gall bladder is a muscular sac located

between the liver lobes.

The gall bladder contracts to release bile

when it is stimulated.

The bile moves along the cystic duct, common

bile duct and common bile and pancreatic duct

into the duodenum.

cystic duct, which transports bile to the gall bladder for storage.

The common hepatic duct and cystic ducts join to form the common bile duct.

The common bile duct joins the pancreatic duct to open into the duodenum.
6.1. The Gall Bladder:

6.1.2 The Function of The Gall Bladder:

The gall bladder stores and releases bile that

is produced in the liver.

The Function of Bile:

Bile emulsifies large fat globules into fat

droplets.

This helps the digestion of fats by increasing

the surface area on which the enzyme lipase

can act.

Bile provides an alkaline medium for the action of enzymes in the pancreatic and intestinal juices.

Bile helps with the absorption of fats by binding to the insoluble fatty acids to form water-soluble complexes

(micelles) which can diffuse into the villus of the small intestine.
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7. Five Processes in Nutrition:

The Five Steps in Nutrition in Animals and Humans Are:

7.1 Ingestion

Food is taken into the alimentary canal.

7.2 Digestion

Large insoluble molecules of food are broken down to smaller molecules through physical and chemical digestion.

7.3 Absorption

The end products of digestion are absorbed into the bloodstream.

7.4 Assimilation

The body’s cells absorb the nutrients from the blood and use it to build new cell structures and compounds.

7.5 Egestion/Defecation:

Ingestible food residues are removed/eliminated from the body in the form of feces.
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8. Digestion:

During this process, food is broken down into smaller particles. The smaller food particles have a larger surface area

for digestive enzyme action to break them down further into simple molecules. Simple molecules can then be absorbed

into the bloodstream.

There are Two Types of Digestion Processes that Occur in the Body:

Physical or mechanical digestion

Chemical digestion

8.1 Physical/Mechanical Digestion:

Mechanical digestion is the physical breakdown of large food particles into smaller particles.

Physical digestion does not alter the chemical structure of the compounds, but it increases the surface area.

8.1.1. Chewing process (mastication) :

food is broken down into smaller particles by the teeth and tongue
8.1 Physical/Mechanical Digestion:

8.1.2 Bolus formation:

The chewed food is mixed with saliva and rolled into a ball of food (bolus) using the tongue.

The swallowing process starts with the tongue pushing the bolus through the pharynx, from where it enters the

oesophagus.

8.1.3 Churning movements:

Takes place by contraction and relaxation of the muscles of the stomach wall.

Food particles are broken down further for effective enzyme action and thoroughly mixed with gastric juice.

8.1.4 Peristaltic movements:

The rhythmic contraction and relaxation of the

muscles in the wall of the alimentary canal.

It helps move the food particles forward through

the entire length of the alimentary canal.

8.2 Chemical Digestion:

The breaking down of large insoluble food compounds into smaller soluble food compounds using the addition of

water and digestive enzymes.

8.2.1 The Role Of Water In The Process Of Chemical Digestion Includes:

It acts as a lubricant and facilitates chewing and swallowing.

It acts as a solvent for digested food.

It transports digested food.

It is the medium in which digestive reactions occur.

It is the reagent for hydrolysis.

8.2.2 The Role Of Enzymes In Chemical Digestion :

Is to catalyze the hydrolysis reaction

between water and food.

Enzymes are very sensitive to

changes in temperature and pH and only work in optimal temperatures and pH ranges.
8.2 Chemical Digestion:

8.2.2 Table of the Enzymes:

8.2.2.1 Carbohydrates:

Carbohydrates

8.2.2.2 Proteases:
8.2 Chemical Digestion:

8.2.2 Table of the Enzymes:

8.2.2.3 Lipases:

8.2.3 Chemical Digestion Of Large Compounds Into Smaller Compounds:

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9. Absorption:

Takes place in the small intestine because most of the digestion has taken place by the time the food reaches the small

intestine. The food particles in the small intestine are therefore small enough to be absorbed.

9.1 Structural Adaptations of the Small Intestine for Absorption

The small intestine is structurally adapted for maximum absorption:

The small intestine is approximately 6 m long; this ensures that food

remains in the small intestine for long periods, allowing enough time for

maximum absorption.

The walls of the small intestine contain transverse folds with millions

of finger-like projections called villi. The surface of the villi are covered

with cells with extremely tiny projections called microvilli which further increase the surface area for absorption.
9. Absorption:

9.2 Structural Adaptations of the Villus for Nutrient Absorption:

9.2.1 Epithelium Cells:

Single-layer thick, so nutrients can move through quickly and easily.

Mitochondria-rich cells to produce enough energy for active transport of nutrients.

Secretes mucus (from the goblet cells) that acts and a medium in which nutrients can dissolve and serves as a

carrier fluid for nutrients.

Microvilli that increase the surface area

9.2.1.1 Rich Supply Of Blood And Lymph:

Rich supply of Blood And Lymph vessels to take up nutrients and transport them away.

The villus is richly supplied with capillaries for the absorption of glucose, amino acids, vitamins, mineral salts and

water.

The villus has a central lacteal for the absorption of fats.

9. Absorption:

9.2.1.2 Summary Of How And Where The End Products Of Digestion Are Absorbed.:

Active absorption requires energy for the nutrient to be absorbed against a concentration gradient (low to high).

Passive absorption does not require energy because it moves with the concentration gradient (high to low).
9. Absorption:

9.3 Transport of Absorbed Nutrients:

Glucose, amino acids, water-soluble vitamins, minerals, and water are absorbed from the small intestine and

transported in the blood circulatory.

Glucose, amino acids, water-soluble vitamins, minerals and water are absorbed into the blood capillaries of the
villi in the small intestine.

Capillaries join to form large venules to form the hepatic portal vein transports these nutrients to the liver
The liver converts excess glucose to glycogen and stores it.
Excess amino acids are deaminated by the liver to form urea (waste product) and are removed from the body by the kidneys.

The remaining nutrients leave the liver via the hepatic veins and are transported in the inferior vena cava to
the heart and to the rest of the body.
9. Absorption:

9.3 Transport of Absorbed Nutrients:

Fats and oils are absorbed by the lacteals of the villi

The lacteals unite and form larger lymphatic vessels

that eventually open into the thoracic duct.

Fatty acids and glycerol in the thoracic duct enter the

blood system at the left subclavian vein and are
transported to the rest of the body via the heart
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10. Assimilation:

The incorporation of absorbed nutrients into the cells of the body.

The body cells absorb the required nutrients which are necessary for the building and maintenance of compounds.

10.1 Assimilation of Glucose:

Glucose can enter body cells with the help of the hormone insulin secreted by the pancreas.

Glucose is absorbed into the blood stream (blood sugar levels rise)

Increase in the blood sugar level stimulates the pancreas to secrete insulin into the bloodstream.

Insulin aids in the transport of glucose from the bloodstream into

body cells which lowers the blood sugar level back to normal.
10. Assimilation:

10.1 Assimilation of Glucose:

10.1.1 Glucose Inside A Cell Can Be Used In The Following Ways:

Cellular respiration to produce ATP energy.

Glycogenesis

The conversion of excess glucose molecules into

glycogen in the liver cells with can later then be

converted back into glucose if the body needs glucose.

Stored as fat:

Excess glucose can be changed into fat that is stored in adipose tissue.

10.2 Assimilation of Amino Acids:

Amino acids in ALL cells in the body can be used to synthesise new proteins through the process of protein

synthesis.

The type of proteins made in each cell is determined by the DNA of that cell.
10. Assimilation:

10.2 Assimilation of Amino Acids:

10.2.1 These proteins can then be used to form:

Enzymes Hormones

Muscles Blood plasma proteins

Excess amino acids in the body can not be stored and have to be broken down through the process of

deamination in the liver.

10.2.2 During the process of deamination, amino acids are converted into urea and glucose in the following way:

The amino group (NH2) is broken

off from the amino acid.

NH2 binds to CO2 to form urea

Urea is excreted from the kidneys

as part of the urine.

Non-nitrogenous part forms glucose which is converted into glycogen.

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11. Homeostasis:

The ability of an organism to maintain stability of internal conditions (e.g. temperature, chemical balance) despite

changes in its environment.

A negative feedback mechanism is mechanisms in the human body that detect changes or imbalances in internal

conditions and restore homeostasis.

11. Sequence of Events in a Negative Feedback Mechanism:

11.1 The following is a general sequence of events in a negative feedback mechanism:

Step 1: An imbalance is detected.

Step 2: A control center is stimulated.

Step 3: Control center responds.

Step 4: Message is sent to target organ/s.

Step 5: The target organ responds.

Step 6: It opposes / reverses the imbalance.

Step 7: Balance is restored.

The control of blood glucose levels will be used as an example to explain how a negative feedback system works.
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12. Hormonal Control Of Blood Glucose:

Glucose always needs to be available to cells to maintain cell function through the process of cellular respiration.

Blood sugar levels however should always remain within its normal parameters.

12.1 Homeostasis Of Blood Sugar Levels Is Managed By Two Hormones Secreted By The Pancreas:

Insulin

Glucagon
12. Hormonal Control Of Blood Glucose:

12.1 Homeostasis Of Blood Sugar Levels Is Managed By Two Hormones Secreted By The Pancreas:

12.1.1 How Blood Glucose Concentration Can Be Controlled By The Release Of Insulin And Glucagon In The
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13. Diabetes Mellitus:

Diabetes is a chronic disease characterized by high levels of glucose in the blood.

13.1 Types of Diabetes:

There are two types of diabetes:

Type 1 diabetes

Type 2 diabetes
13. Diabetes Mellitus:

13.1.2 A table that shows the differences between type 1 and type 2 diabetes:

13.2 Diabetes Warning Signs:

Feeling tired and sleepy Blurred Vision

Confusion, passing out. Being thirsty, sweet-smelling breath (like nail varnish or

Stomach pain, feeling or being sick. Pear drop sweets)

Needing to pee more often, high ketones High blood sugar levels.
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14. Diet:

Diet is what we eat each day – it can be good or bad.

A balanced diet contains all the necessary nutrients in the correct quantities.

14.1 It should include the following:

Energy foods, such as carbohydrates and lipids (fats).

Building materials, such as proteins.

Protective nutrients, such as vitamins and minerals.

14.2 Different Diets:

Diet is influenced by the following factors:

Culture Religion

Personal preferences Health

14. Diet:

14.2 Energy in Food:

All foods contain energy stored in their chemical bonds.

Energy in food is measured in kilojoules (kJ) or sometimes also measured in kilocalories

14.2.1 To convert kilocalories into kilojoules:

1 kilocalorie = 4.2 kilojoules

Human energy requirements vary according to their age, biological sex and level of activity.

Growing children need more protein than adults.

Men need more food than women because they have a higher basal metabolic rate than woman.

Active people need more energy food because they burn more calories during exercise.

Pregnant women need more calcium because their baby uses their calcium stores to build new tissue and bone.

Older people need less food because as you get older, your metabolic rate declines.
14. Diet:

14.3 Nutritional Supplements:

A nutritional supplement enhances/adds to the number of vitamins, minerals, proteins (amino acids) and fats (fatty

acids) in the diet.

14.3.1 Supplements Are Usually Taken For The Following Reasons:

health

sports

beauty/anti-ageing
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15. Malnutrition and Food Allergies:

15.1 It should include the following:

Occurs when a person does not follow a balanced diet.

It can result in under-nourishment (eating too little food) or over-nourishment (eating too much food).

This can lead to a number of different disorders or diseases.

15.1.1 Different Diseases And Disorders That Can Result From Malnutrition:
15. Malnutrition and Food Allergies:

15.1.1 Different Diseases And Disorders That Can Result From Malnutrition:

15.2 Food Allergies:

A food allergy is an abnormal immune response.

This occurs when the body considers a substance in food (usually a protein) harmful and develops a defense

mechanism against it.

The body produces antibodies to attack and destroy the harmful substance.
15. Malnutrition and Food Allergies:

15.2 Food Allergies:

A food allergy is an abnormal immune response.

This occurs when the body considers a substance in food (usually a protein) harmful and develops a defense

mechanism against it.

The body produces antibodies to attack and destroy the harmful substance.

15.2.1 Common Symptoms Include:

abdominal pain, cramps and nausea

itchy red rash, eczema

swelling of the lips, mouth and tongue

itchy eyes

shortness of breath, wheezing and coughing

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Cellular
Respiration
 Life
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1. Cellular Respiration Introduction:

1.1 Where Energy Comes From:

1.1.1 Diagram of Cellular Respiration:

All energy on earth comes from the sun.

Plants trap the light energy from the sun in

chlorophyll molecules during photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis creates energy-rich bonds

that form organic compounds like glucose,

proteins, and fats.

Other living organisms obtain their energy by consuming energy-rich compounds from plants and breaking the

energy-rich bonds during the process of cellular respiration and releasing the stored chemical potential energy.

This energy is stored in the form of ATP until it needed to perform metabolic and physical actions.
1. Cellular Respiration Introduction:

1.1 Where Energy Comes From:

1.1.3 Types of Cellular Respiration:

1.1.3.1 Diagram of Aerobic Respiration:

1. Cellular Respiration Introduction:

1.1 Where Energy Comes From:

1.1.3 Types of Cellular Respiration:

1.1.3.1 Diagram of Anaerobic Respiration:

1. Cellular Respiration:

1.2 Uses of Energy of Living Cells:

1.2.1 Organisms:

Growth

Active transport

Cell division

Anabolic reactions

1.2.2 Animals

Movement

Nerve impulses

Heat

Thoughts

1.2.3 Plants

Getting salts Movement of water

1. Cellular Respiration:

1.3 Aerobic Respiration:

Takes place when sufficient oxygen is present.

Takes place in the cytoplasm and mitochondria of all living cells.

1.3.1 Structure of the Mitochondrion:

1.3.1.1 3D Structure of the Mitochondrion 1.3.1.2 2D Structure of the Mitochondrion

1. Cellular Respiration:

1.3 Aerobic Respiration:

1.3.1 Structure of the Mitochondrion:

1.3.1.1 Structure of the Mitochondrion

The mitochondrion is a cigar-shaped organelle in the cytoplasm of plant and animal cells.

It is bound by two membranes.

The outer membrane is permeable to allow for oxygen and pyruvate to enter.

The inner membrane is folded. These folds are called cristae.

The cristae enlarge the surface area to maximise cellular respiration.

On the inside, the mitochondrion is filled with a gel-like substance known as the matrix.

Mitochondrial DNA, ribosomes and enzymes are found in the matrix.

The ribosomes synthesise the enzymes, they are proteins, which drive the process of cellular respiration.

The number of mitochondria within cells increase with the activity of the cells. For example, muscle cells contain

many mitochondria because they are very active cells.

1. Cellular Respiration:

1.3 Aerobic Respiration:

1.3.2 Adaptations of the Mitochondrion:

The smooth outer membrane allows easy diffusion

of substances into the mitochondrion.

The cristae enlarge the surface area to ensure

effective cellular respiration.

Activities inside the mitochondria are controlled by

the mitochondrial DNA and subsequent enzymes

produced by the ribosomes.

1.3.3 The Three Main Stages of Aerobic Respiration Process:

Glycolysis

The Krebs Cycle

Oxidative Phosphorylation
1. Cellular Respiration:

1.3 Aerobic Respiration:

1.3.3 The Three Main Stages of Aerobic Respiration Process:

1.3.3.1 Glycolysis:

Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell,

and it requires energy in the form of ATP.

Oxygen is not necessary for glycolysis to occur.

During glycolysis a glucose molecule gets activated

by the addition of two phosphate groups.

This is known as phosphorylation.

After a complicated series of enzyme-controlled

processes, the glucose molecule splits in two to form two,

3 carbon-pyruvate molecules.

During this process some energy is produced in the form of ATP.

1. Cellular Respiration:

1.3 Aerobic Respiration:

1.3.3 The Three Main Stages of Aerobic Respiration Process:

1.3.3.2 The Krebs Cycle:

This process requires oxygen to occur.

The 2 pyruvate molecules which were formed in the

cytoplasm during glycolysis, enter the mitochondrion.

Once inside the mitochondrion, the pyruvate is

broken down during a cyclic series of chemical reactions

during which carbon dioxide, ATP and energy rich NADH

molecules are produced.

The carbon dioxide is expelled from the body

and the NADH molecules proceed to the next phase in

in aerobic respiration - oxidative phosphorylation.

1. Cellular Respiration:

1.3 Aerobic Respiration:

1.3.3 The Three Main Stages of Aerobic Respiration Process:

1.3.3.3 Oxidative Phosphorylation:

This phase in aerobic respiration takes place in the

cristae (folds of the inner membrane) of the mitochondrion

During Oxidative phosphorylation the mitochondria produce

most of the energy trapped inside energy-rich NADH molecules

Now follows a complex series of events during which hydrogen

atoms are separated into protons and energy-rich electrons.

The energy of the electrons is used to phosphorylate (add a phosphate group) to ADP, to form the energy-rich

ATP molecules.

Once all the energy has been harvested , the protons recombine with the electrons and oxygen to form water.
1. Cellular Respiration:

1.4 Anaerobic Respiration:

Happens when cells or organisms break down glucose to produce energy in the absence of oxygen.

1.4.1 Process of Anaerobic Respiration:

During anaerobic respiration, glucose molecules are only partially broken down in the cytoplasm of living cells.

It yields only 2 molecules of ATP (potential energy).

Many microorganisms can only respire anaerobically.

The process is different for plant and animal cells.

When animal cells respire anaerobically, lactic acid is

produced. This is called lactic acid fermentation.

When plant cells respire anaerobically, ethanol and

carbon dioxide are produced. This is called alcoholic

fermentation.
1. Cellular Respiration:

1.4 Anaerobic Respiration:

1.4.1 Process of Anaerobic Respiration:

1.4.1.1 Lactic Acid Fermentation in Animals:

Occurs in the muscles of humans during

strenuous exercise and a lack of sufficient oxygen

Because the muscles do not receive enough

oxygen and glucose is only partially broken down

(glycolysis).

This causes a build-up of pyruvate in the muscles

which is then converted to lactic acid.

A build-up of lactic acid in the muscles causes

muscle fatigue and pain.

Oxygen can convert lactic acid to carbon dioxide and water.

1. Cellular Respiration:

1.4 Anaerobic Respiration:

1.4.1 Process of Anaerobic Respiration:

1.4.1.1 Alcoholic fermentation (in plants and microorganisms)

Alcoholic fermentation mostly takes place in

microorganisms.

Glycolysis takes place which breaks down

glucose molecules into pyruvic acid.

Very little ATP energy is released during

glycolysis.

Because there is no oxygen available, the

Krebs cycle cannot further use the pyruvic acid to produce energy.

Excess pyruvic acid is thus converted to ethanol.

Carbon dioxide is a pipe product of alcoholic fermentation.

1. Cellular Respiration:

1.5 Role Of Anaerobic Respiration In The Food Industry

1.5.1 Anaerobic respiration in micro-organisms:

Micro-organisms undergo anaerobic respiration.

This type of anaerobic respiration is called fermentation.

An example of an organism that undergo fermentation is the yeast cell.

During fermentation, yeast cells produce energy.

Then carbon dioxide and alcohol are produced as by-products.

These by-products are used in industry.

In industry the yeast is used to produce carbon dioxide and alcohol in large quantities.

This field is called biotechnology.

Biotechnology refers to the process during which biological processes are used for production.

1.5.1.2 The Equation For Anaerobic Respiration In Plants:

glucose + enzymes → carbon dioxide + ethanol

1. Cellular Respiration:

1.5 Role Of Anaerobic Respiration In The Food Industry

1.5.1 Anaerobic respiration in micro-organisms:

1.5.1.2 The Equation For Anaerobic Respiration In Animals:

glucose + enzymes → carbon dioxide + lactic acid

1.5.2 Fermentation Has Many Health Benefits And Is Used In The Production Of

alcoholic beverages Yogurt

Bread Sauerkraut

apple cider and vinegar Also used to generate ethanol as a source of biofuel.
1. Cellular Respiration:

1.5 Role Of Anaerobic Respiration In The Food Industry

1.5.2 Fermentation Has Many Health Benefits And Is Used In The Production Of:

1.5.2.1 Yeast:

Yeast is used in wine and bread making.

During fermentation, the product that is

produced is dependent on the sugar that is

used during anaerobic fermentation.

If apple juice is the sugar source then,.

cider is made

When wine is made the source of sugar

is grapes.

If it is beer that needs to be made then

the sugar used is a malt extract from germinating barley.

1. Cellular Respiration:

1.5 Role Of Anaerobic Respiration In The Food Industry

1.5.2 Fermentation Has Many Health Benefits And Is Used In The Production Of:

1.5.2.2 Wine:

The grapes are crushed.

Then the crushed grapes together with

the juice is placed in a fermentation vat.

Then yeast is added to the vat.

Fermentation now occurs at a

controlled temperature.

Alcohol and carbon dioxide is released

during the fermentation process.

This results in the formation of wine.

1. Cellular Respiration:

1.5 Role Of Anaerobic Respiration In The Food Industry

1.5.2 Fermentation Has Many Health Benefits And Is Used In The Production Of:

1.5.2.3 Bread-making:

Yeast is added to the flour.

Then water is added to make a dough.

Remember the flour has starch. The

starch in the flour is broken down into maltose

when water is added to it. Maltose is a type of sugar.

As the yeast undergoes respiration is breaks down the sugar to release energy.

Together with the energy it also releases carbon dioxide and alcohol.

The alcohol is burnt off during baking.

The carbon dioxide causes the bread to rise.

When the bread is cooked the high temperatures kill the yeast.
1. Cellular Respiration:

1.5 Role Of Anaerobic Respiration In The Food Industry

1.5.3. Fermentation and Bacteria:

Used in the making of cheese and yogurt.

The type of bacteria that is used in making

these dairy products is called lactic acid bacteria.

During anaerobic respiration this type of bacteria

releases lactic acid.

The lactic acid turns the milk or cream sour.

This lowers the pH of the milk or cream.

The acidic pH prevents other types of bacteria

from growing.
1.5.3. Fermentation and Bacteria:

1.5.3.1 Cheese:

Lactic acid bacteria is added to the milk.

This bacteria undergoes anaerobic respiration to release lactic acid.

Then a protease enzyme, called rennin, is added to the milk.

Rennin causes the milk protein to coagulate.

The milk curdles into solid curd.

The curd is cut into slabs and a liquid is drained away after the curdling process.

This liquid is called whey.

The curd is compressed into blocks.

They are then placed on shelves to ripen.

The ripen process occurs as a result of action by other micro-organisms.

The longer the cheese is left to ripen the sharper its taste.

The flavour or texture of the cheese is dependents on the strains of bacteria used in their production.
1. Cellular Respiration:

1.5 Role Of Anaerobic Respiration In The Food Industry

1.5.4. Biofuel:
1. Cellular Respiration:

1.6 Comparision Between Aerobic Respiration And Anaerobic Respiration:

1. Cellular Respiration:

1.7 Practical Investigations of Cellular Respiration:

1.7.1 Determining if Carbon Dioxide is Produced During Aerobic Respiration of Living Organisms:

1.7.1.1 Diagram of the Experiment

1. Cellular Respiration:

1.7 Practical Investigations of Cellular Respiration:

1.7.1 Determining if Carbon Dioxide is Produced During Aerobic Respiration of Living Organisms:

1.7.1.2 Method:

1 Sterilize all seeds and equipment.

2 Place half the seeds in boiling water for 15 minutes

OR don’t put any seeds in test tube A.

3 Set up the apparatus according to the illustration above.

4 Leave the test tubes in a warm place overnight.

5 Examine the test tubes the next day and record your results.

1.7.1.3 Results:

The control group: The lime water stays clear.

The experiment group: The lime water turns milky.

1. Cellular Respiration:

1.7 Practical Investigations of Cellular Respiration:

1.7.1 Determining if Carbon Dioxide is Produced During Aerobic Respiration of Living Organisms:

1.7.1.4 Conclusion:

Carbon dioxide is produced during aerobic cellular

respiration by living organisms.

1.7.1.4 Analysis:

Why are there no seeds in test tube A?

Why is lime water being used?

Why is it important that the rubber

stoppers are firmly in place?

Why would the surface of the seeds be sterilized?

Identify the: a) dependent variable; and b) the independent

variable in this experiment.

1. Cellular Respiration:

1.7 Practical Investigations of Cellular Respiration:

1.7.2 Determining if Carbon Dioxide is Produced by Living Organisms During Anaerobic Respiration:

1.7.2.1 Diagram of the Experiment:

1. Cellular Respiration:

1.7 Practical Investigations of Cellular Respiration:

1.7.2 Determining if Carbon Dioxide is Produced by Living Organisms During Anaerobic Respiration:

1.7.2.2 Method:

1. Sterilize all equipment.

2. Set up the apparatus according to the illustration above.

3. Boil the glucose solution to ensure all the oxygen is removed.

4. Cover the sugar solution with a layer of paraffin to prevent any

oxygen present in the air from dissolving in the sugar solution

5. Leave in a warm place for 3 hours.

6. Record the results.

1.7.2.3 Results:

The clear lime water becomes milky.

1. Cellular Respiration:

1.7 Practical Investigations of Cellular Respiration:

1.7.2 Determining if Carbon Dioxide is Produced by Living Organisms During Anaerobic Respiration:

1.7.2.4 Conclusion:

Carbon dioxide is produced during anaerobic respiration

in living cells (yeast).

1.7.2.4 Analysis:

What is the purpose of the sugar in the experiment?

Could oil be used instead of the paraffin? Why?

Why is a thermometer being used?

What temperature should the water bath be kept at? Why?

What would you do to ensure the reliability of this

experiment?

What would you expect to smell? Why?

1. Cellular Respiration:

1.7 Practical Investigations of Cellular Respiration:

1.7.3 Determining if Oxygen is Used by Living Organisms During Cellular Respiration:

1.7.3.1 Diagram of the Experiment:

1. Cellular Respiration:

1.7 Practical Investigations of Cellular Respiration:

1.7.3 Determining if Oxygen is Used by Living Organisms During Cellular Respiration:

1.7.3.2 Method:

1. Sterilize all equipment.

2. Boil half the beans for 15 minutes, put them in test tube B.

3. Set up the apparatus according to the illustration above.

4. Leave the test tubes overnight.

5. Remove the stoppers on both test tubes, and insert a glowing

splint.

6. Record the results.

1.7.3.3 Results:

Test tube A: The glowing splint dies out.

Test tube B: The glowing splint ignites.

1. Cellular Respiration:

1.7 Practical Investigations of Cellular Respiration:

1.7.3 Determining if Oxygen is Used by Living Organisms During Cellular Respiration:

1.7.3.4 Conclusion:

Oxygen is used by living organisms during cellular respiration.

1.7.3.4 Analysis:

Identify the:

a) dependent variable

b) the independent variable in this experiment.

Why is a lighted splint used in this experiment?

What would you do to ensure the validity of this experiment?

 Life
Sciences

Gaseous
Exchange
 Life
Sciences
1. Gaseous Exchanges:

1.1 Gaseous Exchanges Introduction:

It is important that you can distinguish between breathing, gaseous exchange, and cellular respiration.

1.1.1 Cellular Respiration:

the chemical process whereby oxygen and

glucose are broken down to produce energy,

carbon dioxide and water (active process).

glucose (C6H12O6) + oxygen (O2)  carbon dioxide (CO2) + water (H20) + energy
1. Gaseous Exchanges:

1.1. Gaseous Exchanges Introduction:

1.1.2 Gaseous Exchange:

Gaseous exchange is a physical process which involves the diffusion of gases between the environment

and the organism across a membrane (passive process).

1. Gaseous Exchanges:

1.1. Gaseous Exchanges Introduction:

1.1.3 Breathing:

Breathing is a mechanical process that involves the physical taking in of air (inhalation) and letting out of air

(exhalation) of the respiratory organs (active & passive process).

1. Gaseous Exchanges:

1.1 Gaseous Exchanges Introduction:

1.1.3 Requirements For An Effective Gaseous Exchange Surface:

 Life
Sciences
1. Gaseous Exchanges:

1.2 Gaseous Exchange In Different Organisms:

Both terrestrial and aquatic plants and animals have gaseous exchange surfaces and respiratory structures that

ensure effective exchange of gases (O2 and CO2).

These requirements are met in a variety of different ways for different organisms:

1.2.1 Gaseous Exchanges in Dicotyledonous Plants:

Dicotyledonous plants live in the sun so that they can photosynthesize.

They therefore have a problem of losing much water vapor.

The stomatal pores, through which the gases move, are found mainly underneath the leaves.

The guard cells protect these openings.

The cells, which act as the gas exchange surface, are found above the pores.

The gas exchange surface provided by the spongy mesophyll cells is well suited to the function of gas exchange.
1. Gaseous Exchanges:

1.2 Gaseous Exchange In Different Organisms:

1.2.1 Gaseous Exchanges in Dicotyledonous Plants:

1.2.1.1.1 Diagram of Gaseous Exchanges in Dicotyledonous Plants:

1. Gaseous Exchanges:

1.2 Gaseous Exchange In Different Organisms:

1.2.1 Gaseous Exchanges in Dicotyledonous Plants:

1.2.1.1.2 Diagram of Gaseous Exchanges in Dicotyledonous Plants:

1. Gaseous Exchanges:

1.2 Gaseous Exchange In Different Organisms:

1.2.2 Gaseous Exchanges in Earthworms:

The earthworm lives in moist soil.

Therefore, it uses its skin as the gas exchange surface.

The skin serves as a good exchange surface.

1.2.2.1 Diagram of The Gaseous Exchange in Earthworms

1. Gaseous Exchanges:

1.2 Gaseous Exchange In Different Organisms:

1.2.3 Gaseous Exchanges in Insects:

Insects have a tough exoskeleton that protects

the animal from drying out.

It cannot be used as the exchange surface.

There are small holes called spiracles in the

exoskeleton, and it is through these that the gases

move in and out of the body.

1. Gaseous Exchanges:

1.2 Gaseous Exchange In Different Organisms:

1.2.3 Gaseous Exchanges in Insects:

1.2.3.1 Diagram of The Gaseous Exchange in Insects:

1. Gaseous Exchanges:

1.2 Gaseous Exchange In Different Organisms:

1.2.4 Gaseous Exchanges in Bony Fish:

The gills are good gas exchange surfaces because:

A large surface area is provided by the many gills that are folded.

They are very thin. There is only one layer of cells through which the gases need to diffuse.

They are moist as they are in the water in which the fish lives.

They are inside the body and are protected by the operculum. Gill rakers prevent any food or foreign material from

damaging the delicate gills.

They have good ventilation provided by the opening and closing of the mouth and the changing of the volume of the

buccal cavity.

There is a good internal transport system.

Each gill is provided with many blood capillaries that bring carbon dioxide to the surface of the gills and take oxygen

from the surface of the gills to the tissues.

1. Gaseous Exchanges:

1.2 Gaseous Exchange In Different Organisms:

1.2.4 Gaseous Exchanges in Bony Fish:

1.2.4.1. Diagram of The Gaseous Exchange in Bony Fish:

1. Gaseous Exchanges:

1.2 Gaseous Exchange In Different Organisms:

1.2.2 Gaseous Exchanges in Mammals:

Most mammals are terrestrial.

Mammals that live in water, for example whales, come up to the surface to get air.

Mammals have internal lungs as the gas exchange surface.

1.2.2.1 Diagram of The Gaseous Exchange in Mammals:

 Life
Sciences
1. Gaseous Exchanges:

1.3 Human Respiratory System:

The human gas exchange system consists of the following distinct sections:

Air passages

Lungs

Muscles involved in the mechanism of breathing (ventilation)

1.3.1 Air Passages:

Nose

Epiglottis

Trachea

Bronchi (single = bronchus)

Bronchioles (single = bronchiole)

1. Gaseous Exchanges:

1.3 Human Respiratory System:

1.3.1 Air Passages:

1.3.1.1 Nose:

Two nostrils leading into the nasal cavity.

Hairs in the nostrils filter the air.

Lining of the nasal cavity has ciliated

epithelium.

1.3.1.2 Epiglottis:

Covers the opening of the trachea.

It closes to prevent food from entering the

breathing system and damaging it.

1. Gaseous Exchanges:

1.3 Human Respiratory System:

1.3.1 Air Passages:

1.3.1.3 Trachea:

Kept open by C-shaped cartilage rings.

It carries air to the two bronchi. It is lined

with ciliated epithelium.

1.3.1.4 Bronchi:

Has C-shaped cartilage to keep the tube open.

Each bronchus divides into many bronchioles.

1.3.1.5 Bronchioles:

Divide into many alveolar ducts, and at the end

of each duct are a number of air sacs called alveoli

(single = alveolus).
1. Gaseous Exchanges:

1.3 Human Respiratory System:

1.3.2 Lungs:

1.3.2.1 External Structure of The Lungs:

1. Gaseous Exchanges:

1.3 Human Respiratory System:

1.3.2 Lungs:

1.3.2.2 Internal Structure of The Lungs:

1. Gaseous Exchanges:

1.3 Human Respiratory System:

1.3.2 Lungs:

1.3.2.3 Diagram of the Lungs:

1. Gaseous Exchanges:

1.3 Human Respiratory System:

1.3.3 Ribs and Respiratory Muscles:

1.3.3.1 Ribs:

Surround the lungs and together with the sternum in the front provide

protection.

1.3.3.2 Intercostal Muscle

Found between the ribs.

These muscles raise and lower the rib cage when breathing in and out.

This will increase or decrease the volume of the chest cavity during

breathing

Is a tough sheet of muscle below the lungs.

This contracts and relaxes to increase or decrease the volume of the

chest cavity during breathing.

 Life
Sciences
1. Gaseous Exchanges:

1.4 Processes Involved:

1.4.1 Ventilation:

1.4.1.1 Inhalation VS Exhalation:

Ventilation is the intake or inhalation of air and the excretion or exhalation of air into and out of the lungs.

Contraction and relaxation of the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles (between the ribs) increases

and decreases the volume of the thoracic (chest)cavity to maximise inhalation and exhalation.
1. Gaseous Exchanges:

1.4 Processes Involved:

1.4.1 Ventilation:

1.4.1.1 Inhalation VS Exhalation:

1.4.1.1.2 Diagram to Show Inhalation:

1. Gaseous Exchanges:

1.4 Processes Involved:

1.4.1 Ventilation:

1.4.1.1 Inhalation VS Exhalation:

1.4.1.1.2 Diagram to Show Inhalation:

1. Gaseous Exchanges:

1.4 Processes Involved:

1.4.1 Ventilation:

1.4.1.2 How the Percentage of Gasses Change::

Percentages, of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen in inhaled and exhaled air.
1. Gaseous Exchanges:

1.4 Processes Involved:

1.4.2. Gaseous Exchanges in the Alveoli:

How the alveoli are structurally suited for efficient gaseous exchange:

Large surface area – millions of alveoli

Very thin – one layer of squamous epithelium cells lining the alveoli and the lining of the blood capillary is also one

layer of squamous epithelium

Moisture – supplied by tissue fluid that leaks out from the blood to line the alveoli

Well ventilated – the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles contract and relax changing the volume and pressure

of the chest cavity. This draws air in and pushes air out.

Well protected – the sternum in the front; the rib cage surrounding the chest. The alveoli are inside the body to

prevent dehydration.

Richly supplied with blood capillaries to transport O2 away from the lungs and CO2 towards the lungs.
1. Gaseous Exchanges:

1.4 Processes Involved:

1.4.2. Gaseous Exchanges in the Alveoli:

1.4.2.1 Diagrams of the Gaseous Exchanges in the Alveoli:

1. Gaseous Exchanges:

1.4 Processes Involved:

1.4.2. Gaseous Exchanges in the Alveoli:

1.4.2.2 Diagrams of the Structure of Alveoli:

1. Gaseous Exchanges:

1.4 Processes Involved:

1.4.3. Transport of Gasses Involved:

1.4.3.1 How Carbon Dioxide and Oxygen are Transported in the Blood:

Oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported by the blood, which is pumped around the body by the heart.

1.4.3.1.1. Oxygen Is Carried In The Blood:

as oxyhemoglobin in the red blood cells,

a small amount of oxygen dissolves in the plasma.

The oxygen rich blood is pumped around the body to the various organs and tissues.

1.4.3.1.2. Carbon dioxide is transported from the tissues and organs in the blood in the following ways:

most of it as bicarbonate ions dissolved in the blood plasma

a small amount combines with haemoglobin in the red blood cells to form carbaminohaemoglobin, a small amount

dissolves in the plasma.

The carbon dioxide-rich blood is transported back to the lungs.

1. Gaseous Exchanges:

1.4 Processes Involved:

1.4.3. Transport of Gasses Involved:

1.4.3.1 How Carbon Dioxide and Oxygen are Transported in the Blood:

1.4.3.1.3. Diagram of How Carbon Dioxide and Oxygen are Transported in the Blood:
1. Gaseous Exchanges:

1.4 Processes Involved:

1.4.3. Transport of Gasses Involved:

1.4.3.2 Diagram To Show How Gasses Diffuse In and Out of the Blood:
 Life
Sciences
1. Gaseous Exchanges:

1.5 Control of Breathing:

The levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide need to be kept at the necessary constant levels to ensure the correct

functioning of the metabolism in the body.

This is carried out by a negative feedback mechanism.

1.5.1 Negative Feedback Mechanism of Breathing

The levels of carbon dioxide in the blood are monitored by sensory cells in the blood vessels near the heart.

When the carbon dioxide levels are high a nervous impulse is sent to the breathing centre in the brain.

Nervous impulses are sent to the diaphragm and intercostal muscles to bring about faster and deeper breathing to

breathe out the carbon dioxide at a faster rate thus reducing the levels of carbon dioxide back to normal.
1. Gaseous Exchanges:

1.5 Control of Breathing:

1.5.1 Negative Feedback Mechanism of Breathing:

1.5.1.1 The Process of Negative Feedback Mechanism of Breathing:

 Life
Sciences
1. Gaseous Exchanges:

1.6 Factors That Affect the Respiratory System:

1.6.1 Effects of Altitude on Gas Exchanges:

The air becomes less dense and contains less oxygen molecules as the altitude increases. There is therefore more

oxygen at sea level than at an altitude of 6000m.

This means that one needs to take more breaths at a higher altitude, in order to get the same amount of oxygen

obtained at a lower altitude.

The higher the elevation, the more difficult breathing becomes and that is why mountain climbers who climb to

great heights often carry a supply of oxygen with them.

Research also confirms that people who live in high altitudes breathe more deeply and quickly. They also have a

higher quantity of red blood cells, thus increasing their oxygen-carrying capacity.
1. Gaseous Exchanges:

1.6 Factors That Affect the Respiratory System:

1.6.1 Diseases of The Respiratory System:

1. Gaseous Exchanges:

1.6 Factors That Affect the Respiratory System:

1.6.1 Diseases of The Respiratory System:

1. Gaseous Exchanges:

1.6 Factors That Affect the Respiratory System:

1.6.1 Diseases of The Respiratory System:

1.6.2 Hay Fever:

An allergic response that may be caused by pollen grains and spores of moulds that irritate the mucus membrane

of the nasal passage.

The immune system then produces histamines which are supposed to protect the body.
1. Gaseous Exchanges:

1.6 Factors That Affect the Respiratory System:

1.6.2 Hay Fever:

These histamines cause the following symptoms -:

runny nose,

sneezing

blocked nose

itchy watery eyes

itchy nose.
1. Gaseous Exchanges:

1.6 Factors That Affect the Respiratory System:

1.6.2 Smoking and Its Affect On Gaseous Exchange:

It is believed that the habit of smoking tobacco began with the Native American Indians as far as the 1490s. They

smoked rolled-up tobacco leaves.

Soon the practice of smoking was modified when cigars were introduced in the 1800s back in America.

1.6.2.1 Effects of Tobacco:

It reduces the amount of oxygen available to different parts of the body.

Blood vessels become narrower thus reducing blood and oxygen supply to the tissues.

Smoking releases carbon monoxide which competes with oxygen that combines with hemoglobin.

This in turn causes the heart to work harder to increase oxygen supply in the body.

Recent studies reveal that smokers have 5 times higher chances of experiencing a heart attack or stroke than a

non-smoker before the age of 40.

Nicotine in cigarettes is addictive and causes an increase in blood pressure, leading to heart disease.
1. Gaseous Exchanges:

1.6 Factors That Affect the Respiratory System:

1.6.2 Smoking and Its Affect On Gaseous Exchange:

1.6.2.1 Effects of Tobacco:

Tar is a carcinogen that may cause lung cancer.

Ammonia and Cyanide irritate the air passages

causing smokers to cough and is a primary cause of

Chronic.

Obstructive Pulmonary Disease(COPD)

Non-smokers (Passive Smokers) who live around

smokers are also at risk of getting diseases associated

with smoking tobacco.

Pregnant women who smoke cause a decrease in the

amount of oxygen supplied to the developing baby leading to stunted growth and low birth weight of the baby.
1.6 Factors That Affect the Respiratory System:

1.6.3 Smoking and Its Affect On Gaseous Exchange:

1.6.3.1 Effects of Tobacco:

South Africa instituted the Tobacco Products Control Act.

This legislation limits the habits of smokers and is aimed at protecting children and non-smokers from the

dangers of cigarette smoke.

Laws that are in place are:

No smoking in public places like restaurants

No advertising or promotion of tobacco products

Health warnings visible on packaging of cigarettes

Nicotine and tar content to appear on packaging

Members of the public that break these laws are liable for heavy fines.

The introduction of the electronic or e-cigarette, has also created controversy. There is ongoing research to

determine the effects of this habit on respiratory health for the smoker as well as the general public.
1. Gaseous Exchanges:

1.6 Factors That Affect the Respiratory System:

1.6.3 Artificial Respiration:

Artificial respiration is necessary to keep the lungs working when breathing suddenly stops, until medical

assistance arrives.

Mouth-to-Mouth resuscitation / CPR is one of the most popular methods.

Sometimes machines called ventilators are used to keep the lungs working in supplying the body with oxygen.

1.6.3.1 Possible Causes

- Electric shocks - Diseases eg. Poliomyelitis and Covid-19

- Drug overdose

- Strangulation

- Asphyxiation

- Accidents

- Drowning
1. Gaseous Exchanges:

1.6 Factors That Affect the Respiratory System:

1.6.3 Artificial Respiration:

1.6.3.2 Diagram of Artificial Respiration:

 Life
Sciences

Excretion
 Life
Sciences
1. Excretion:

1.1 Organs of Excretion:

1.1.1 Why Is Excretion Important:

Excretion is the removal of metabolic wastes from the living organism.

Metabolic wastes are waste substances that are produced during metabolic reactions.

Some examples of the metabolic wastes are urea, uric acid and carbon dioxide.

These substances can be very dangerous if allowed to accumulate in the body.

For example, if carbon dioxide is allowed to collect in the body it combines with water to form carbonic acid.

This would change the pH of the tissue fluid and affect the functioning of enzymes.
1. Excretion:

1.1 Organs of Excretion:

1.1.1 Why Is Excretion Important:

1.1.1.1. Lungs:

During the process of cellular respiration carbon dioxide is released as a by product at the cells.

Remember that cellular respiration is an example of a metabolic reaction.

Therefore, carbon dioxide is an example of a metabolic waste.

The carbon dioxide enters the blood capillaries around the cell by diffusion.

Through gaseous exchange in the lungs the carbon dioxide diffuses

from the blood capillaries into the alveoli.

Then carbon dioxide then leaves the body during exhalation.

The lung is therefore an example of an excretory organ because

it rids the body of carbon dioxide which is an example of

an excretory waste.
1. Excretion:

1.1 Organs of Excretion:

1.1.1 Why Is Excretion Important:

1.1.1.2. Skin:

When the body temperature increases, we perspire

in order to lower our body temperature.

The sweat or perspiration reaches the surface of the

skin through pores on the skin.

These pores carry the sweat form the sweat glands.

Sweat is made up of water, salt and urea.

Since these substances are examples of metabolic

waste, the skin is also an example of an excretory organ.

1. Excretion:

1.1 Organs of Excretion:

1.1.1 Why Is Excretion Important:

1.1.1.3. Liver:

The liver is an excretory organ because it is responsible

for the deamination of the amino acids.

This means that it breaks down the excess amino acids.

The excess amino acids are broken down into urea.

Urea is an example of a nitrogenous waste.

The urea is then carried by the blood to the kidneys

where it forms a part of urine.

1. Excretion:

1.1 Organs of Excretion:

1.1.1 Why Is Excretion Important:

1.1.1.3. Kidneys:

The kidneys are an example of an excretory organ because they are involved in the production of urine.

Metabolic wastes from all over the body come to the kidneys.

In the kidneys this blood is filtered and all the metabolic waste forms urine.

Therefore, the metabolic waste leaves the body as urine.

1. Excretion:

1.1 Organs of Excretion:

1.1.1 Why Is Excretion Important:

1.1.1.3. Not the Gut:

At the end of the digestion the undigested and indigestible food needs to leave the body.

This occurs through the process of defaecation or egestion.

But indigestible food is not an example of excretory waste.

This is so because they are not produced as a result of any metabolic activities.

Therefore, defaecation or egestion are not examples of excretory processes.

Therefore, the gut is not an example of an excretory organ.

 Life
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1. Excretion:

1.2 Basic Structure of the Urinary System:

1.2.1 The Urinary System Is Made Up Of The Following:

2 kidneys

A pair of ureters

Bladder

Urethra

Blood vessels that

enter and leave the kidney

1. Excretion:

1.2 Basic Structure of the Urinary System:

1.2.1 The Urinary System Is Made Up Of The Following:

1.2.1.2. The Kidneys:

The kidneys:

There are a pair of kidneys.

These are found in the abdominal cavity.

They occur on either side of the midline, just below the diaphragm.

The right kidney is usually lower than the left kidney.

1. Excretion:

1.2 Basic Structure of the Urinary System:

1.2.1 The Urinary System Is Made Up Of The Following:

1.2.1.2 The Kidneys:

1.2.1.2.1 The Functions of the Kidneys:

Excretion of metabolic waste.

Osmoregulation (regulation of water content of the body).

Regulation of the blood pH.

Regulation of the salt content,

1.2.1.2.2 We Can Actually Say That The Role Of The Kidney Is…

Excretion.

Osmoregulation.

Homeostasis.

But remember that osmoregulation is also an example of homeostasis.

1. Excretion:

1.2 Basic Structure of the Urinary System:

1.2.1 The Urinary System Is Made Up Of The Following:

1.2.1.3 The Role of The Kidneys in Homeostasis:

It ensures that the water content of the blood is

always constant with the help of the hormone ADH.

It maintains the blood pH by controlling the excretion

and re-absorption of the hydrogen and bicarbonate ions.

It maintains the salt content of the blood with the

help of the hormone aldosterone.

 Life
Sciences
1. Excretion:

1.3 Structure of the Kidneys:

1.3.1 The External Structure:

Each kidney is bean shaped.

It is surrounded by a renal capsule which protects the kidney.

The adrenal gland is found on top of each kidney.

On the medial surface of each kidney there is a concave surface.

This surface is called the hilum.

The hilum is the area where the blood vessels enter and leave the kidney. It is also the area where the ureters leave

the kidney.
1. Excretion:

1.3 Structure of the Kidneys:

1.3.1 The External Structure:

1.3.1.1 Diagram of the External Structure of the Kidneys:

1. Excretion:

1.3 Structure of the Kidneys:

1.3.2 The Internal Structure:

Each kidney is covered by a thin membrane called the renal capsule.

Within the capsule the kidney is divided into two regions as shown on the diagram.

These 2 regions are the outer cortex and inner medulla.

1.3.2.1 Diagram of The Internal Structure of the Kidney:

1. Excretion:

1.3 Structure of the Kidneys:

1.3.2 The Internal Structure:

1.3.2.2 The Medulla:

Made Up Cone Shape Structures Called The Pyramids.

Within these pyramids are number of ducts.

These ducts are called the ducts of Bellini.

The ducts of Bellini lead into the calyxes.

The calyx encloses the apex of each pyramid.

The calyx is actually branch of the pelvis.

Each calyx then leads into the pelvis.

The pelvis is the upper enlarged portion of the ureter.

The pelvis leaves each kidney as the ureter.

 Life
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1. Excretion:

1.4 Functional Unit Of The Kidney: The Nephron

Embedded in each kidney are about 1 million nephrons.

The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney.

1.4.1 The Location of the Nephron:

The nephron runs through the cortex and medulla.

1.4.1.1 Each Nephron Is Made Up Of 2 Parts:

Malpighian body is found in the cortex of the kidney.

Renal tubules extend into the medulla of the kidney.

1. Excretion:

1.4 Functional Unit Of The Kidney: The Nephron

1.4.1 The Location of the Nephron:

1.4.1.2 Diagram of the Kidneys and a Nephron:

1. Excretion:

1.4 Functional Unit Of The Kidney: The Nephron

1.4.2 The Basic Structure of the Nephron:

A nephron consists of two portions:

1.4.2.1 A Malpighian body:

Where blood plasma is filtered out, which includes:

the glomerulus and

Bowman’s capsule.

1.4.2.2 A Renal Tubule:

Into which filtered fluid passes, which includes:

Proximal convoluted tubule

Loop of Henle’

Distal convoluted tubule

Collecting duct
1.4.2.2 A Renal Tubule:
1. Excretion:

1.4 Functional Unit Of The Kidney: The Nephron

1.4.2 The Basic Structure of the Nephron:

1.4.2.3 Diagram of A Malpighian Body:

1. Excretion:

1.4 Functional Unit Of The Kidney: The Nephron

1.4.3 Malpighian Body:

1.4.3.1 Structure of A Malpighian body:

Consists of 2 parts:

The glomerulus: a capillary network.

A Bowman’s capsule: a double-walled “cup” that surrounds the glomerulus.

1. Excretion:

1.4 Functional Unit Of The Kidney: The Nephron

1.4.3 Malpighian Body:

1.4.3.1 Structure of A Malpighian body:

1.4.3.1.1 The Glomerulus:

The renal artery branches to form an arteriole called the afferent arteriole.

The afferent arteriole branches to form a system of capillaries called the glomerulus.

These capillaries increase the surface area for glomerular

filtration.

The glomerulus is made up of specialised endothelial

cells, which contain small holes that allow the process of

glomerular filtration to take place.

The glomerulus lies within a cup-shaped.

1.4 Functional Unit Of The Kidney: The Nephron

1.4.3 Malpighian Body:

1.4.3.1 Structure of A Malpighian body:

1.4.3.1.2 Bowman's Capsule:

Cup-shaped structure.

Has an inner and outer wall.

The space between the inner and outer wall is called the capsular space

The wall is lined by squamous epithelial cells.

The inner wall is made up of specialized cells called podocytes.

The capillaries of the glomerulus rejoins to form a single vein and is called the efferent vessel.

1.4.3.1.2.1 The Podocytes:

Specialized cells found in the inner wall of the Bowman’s capsule.

Arranged so that tiny pores are formed between the cells.

These pores are called slit pores.

1. Excretion:

1.4 Functional Unit Of The Kidney: The Nephron

1.4.3 Malpighian Body:

1.4.3.1 Structure of A Malpighian body:

1.4.3.1.2 Diagram of the Bowman's Capsule:

1. Excretion:

1.4 Functional Unit Of The Kidney: The Nephron

1.4.3 Malpighian Body:

1.4.3.2 Adaptations of the Malpighian Body to its Functions:

The afferent vessel is wider than the efferent vessel creating pressure in the glomerulus allowing for glomerular

filtration.

The slit pores between the podocytes acts as a selective filter allowing only the very small substances to pass

through.

The cup-shaped Bowman’s capsule allows for close contact with the capillaries of the glomerulus.

The endothelial wall of the capillaries and the single layer of podocytes allow for an extremely thin surface to allow

for easy filtration.

The endothelium has pores to allow for passageway of substances during filtration.

The capillaries of the glomerulus provides a large surface area for filtration.
1. Excretion:

1.4 Functional Unit Of The Kidney: The Nephron

1.4.4 Renal Tubes:

1.4.4.1 Structure of the Renal Tubes:

Proximal convoluted tubule

Loop of Henle, consists of 3 limbs:

descending limb,

the hairpin bend and

the ascending limb.

Distal convoluted tubule, which feeds into the collecting duct.

1. Excretion:

1.4 Functional Unit Of The Kidney: The Nephron

1.4.4 Renal Tubes:

1.4.4.1 Structure of the Renal Tubes:

1.4.4.1.1 Proximal Convoluted Tubule:

It is long and twisted, this creates a large surface area.

These tubules are lined on the inside by cuboidal epithelial cells with brush borders.

The cells lining the tubules have a large number of

mitochondria, which provides the energy required for active

re-absorption.

The proximal convoluted tubule leads to the loop of Henle.

1. Excretion:

1.4 Functional Unit Of The Kidney: The Nephron

1.4.4 Renal Tubes:

1.4.4.1 Structure of the Renal Tubes:

1.4.4.1.2 Loop Of Henle:

Made up of 3 limbs:

descending limb,

the hairpin bend and

the ascending limb.

The ascending limb of the loop of

Henle opens into the distal convoluted tubule.

The function of the loop of Henle’ is to ensure

That the medulla of the kidney has a high concentration of sodium ions so that the maximum amount of water is

removed form the tubular fluid.

1. Excretion:

1.4 Functional Unit Of The Kidney: The Nephron

1.4.4 Renal Tubes:

1.4.4.1 Structure of the Renal Tubes:

1.4.4.1.3 Distal Convoluted Tubule:

It is also long and convoluted.

Also lined by the cuboidal epithelium with

brush border microvilli.

1.4.4.1.3.1 The Distal Convoluted Tubule Leads Into The Collecting Ducts.

The collecting ducts start in the renal cortex and

continue into the medulla.

These collecting tubules join to form the ducts of Bellini.

The ducts of Bellini are found in the pyramids.

The ducts open into the calyxes of the pyramid.

1. Excretion:

1.5 Blood Vessels of the Kidney:

1.4.1 Blood Flow Through the Kidneys:

1. Excretion:

1.5 Blood Vessels of the Kidney:

There are two blood vessels that supply and drain the kidney:

Renal artery and Renal vein.

1.5.1 The Renal Artery:

Is a branch of the aorta.

It carries blood to the kidney.

This blood is rich in

nitrogenous waste.

The renal artery branches to

form the afferent arteriole.

The afferent arteriole enters the Malpighian body.

Here the afferent arteriole branches to form the capillaries

of the glomerulus.
1. Excretion:

1.5 Blood Vessels of the Kidney:

There are two blood vessels that supply and drain the kidney:

Renal artery and Renal vein.

1.5.1 The Renal Artery:

The blood in the glomerulus contains:

Water Salts

Useful substances for example glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol.

Waste substances such as urea and uric acid

The normal components of blood which is the blood plasma, blood cells and plasma proteins.

These capillaries of glomerulus then rejoin to form the efferent vessel.

The efferent vessel then leaves the Bowman’s capsule.

The efferent vessel then divides to form the capillaries of the second capillary network.

These capillaries rejoin to form small veins called venules.

1. Excretion:

1.5 Blood Vessels of the Kidney:

There are two blood vessels that supply and drain the kidney:

Renal artery and Renal vein.

1.5.2 The Renal Vein:

The venules unite to form the renal vein.

The renal vein leaves the kidney.

The renal vein carries blood that has no nitrogenous waste.

The renal vein then joins the inferior vena cava,

which carries this blood to the heart.

 Life
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1. Excretion:

1.6. Processes Involved:

The kidney functions by means of three major processes.

1.6.1 Glomerular Filtration:

The afferent arteriole is wider than the efferent arteriole.

This sets up a pressure within the capillaries of the glomerulus.

Therefore the blood in the glomerulus is under great pressure.

The pressure causes substances to be forced out of capillaries into the capsular space.

But before they enter the capsular space they must first pass through the podocytes.

The slit pores between the podocytes acts as a selective filter, allowing only the very small substances to pass

Through.
1. Excretion:

1.6. Processes Involved:

1.6.1 Glomerular Filtration:

1.6.1.1 Diagram Showing Glomerular Filtration:

Substances that are small enough to pass through are:

Water Glucose

Amino acids Urea

Uric acids

The blood corpuscles and plasma proteins cannot pass through the podocytes because they are too big.

The liquid is now in the capsular space of the Bowman’s capsule.

This fluid is called the glomerular filtrate.

The glomerular filtrate now enters the renal tubule, where it would undergo tubular absorption and tubular

excretion.
1.6.2 Tubular Re-Absorption:

1.6.2.1 Process:

The glomerular filtrate now enters the proximal convoluted tubule.

This is where tubular re-absorption occurs.

The renal tubules consist of a layer of epithelial cells with brush border microvilli and numerous mitochondria.

99% of filtrate passing through the renal tubules is selectively reabsorbed into the blood.

This requires energy so it is called active reabsorption

Tubular re-absorption is the process during which important substances are re-absorbed from the renal tubules

into the second capillary network or renal medulla.

In this way these important substances do not leave the body with the waste.

Tubular re-absorption begins in the proximal convoluted tubule.

Here all the glucose and most of the water is re-absorbed by the second capillary network.

This means that these substances leave the proximal convoluted tubule and enters the second capillary network.

The filtrate now enters the loop of Henle.

1. Excretion:

1.6. Processes Involved:

1.6.2 Tubular Re-Absorption:

1.6.2.1 Process:

At this point the filtrate is called dilute urine.

The loop of Henle ensures that the medulla always has a high concentration of solutes.

This ensures that water is always saved.

1.6.2.1.1 Diagram of the Proximal Convoluted Tube

1. Excretion:

1.6. Processes Involved:

1.6.2 Tubular Re-Absorption:

1.6.2.1 Process:

1.6.2.1.1 Diagram of the Bowman’s Capsule:

1. Excretion:

1.6. Processes Involved:

1.6.2 Tubular Re-Absorption:

1.6.2.2 Loop of Henle and The Sodium Pump:

Here sodium ions are pumped out of the loop of Henle into the surrounding renal medulla.

This ensures that the medulla always has a higher concentration of sodium ions, and the loop of Henle has a high

concentration of water.

Therefore, water will always leave the loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule and collecting tubule and enter the

medulla.

Water leaves these renal tubules by osmosis.

This ensures that water is saved.

The urine that enters the collecting duct is highly concentrated urine.

The actual amount of water saved is controlled by the hormone ADH.

1. Excretion:

1.6. Processes Involved:

1.6.2 Tubular Re-Absorption:

1.6.2.2 Loop of Henle and The Sodium Pump:

1.6.2.2.1 Diagram of the Sodium Pump:

1. Excretion:

1.6. Processes Involved:

1.6.2 Tubular Re-Absorption:

1.6.2.2 Loop of Henle and The Sodium Pump:

1.6.2.2.1 Diagram of the Kidney Cortex:

1. Excretion:

1.6. Processes Involved:

1.6.3. Tubular Excretion:

During tubular excretion, waste substances from the second capillary network enter the tubules and leaves the

body with the urine.

1.6.3.1 Some of these wastes are:

Ammonia

Creatine

Potassium, hydrogen, sodium and bicarbonate ions

Some drugs e.g. penicillin

Ammonia is manufactured by the epithelial cells of the tubules through kidney metabolism and excreted into the

tubular fluid as ammonium ions.

The excretion of these substances into the tubules is an active transport mechanism.
1. Excretion:

1.6. Processes Involved:

1.6.3. Tubular Excretion:

1.6.3.1 Diagram of Tubular Excretion:

 Life
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1. Excretion:

1.7. Urine:

The three processes of the kidney lead to urine formation. These processes ensure that only waste and excess

water are removed from the body.

The Three Processes Are:

Glomerular filtration Tubular reabsorption

Tubular excretion

1.7.1 Composition of Urine:

About 95% of urine is water. Salts (mainly sodium chloride) make up 2.8%.

Urea makes up 2%.

Small quantities (0.2% of uric acid, creatinine and ammonium ions also occur.

There are also small quantities of drugs, colourants and preservatives.

1. Excretion:

1.7. Urine:

1.7.1 Composition of Urine:

1.7.1.1 Diagrams of the Composition of Urine:

1. Excretion:

1.7. Urine:

1.7.1 Composition of Urine:

1.7.1.2 Hydration:

The composition of urine is not constant.

Factors such as diet and amount of liquid intake and

so, on affects its composition.

Under normal conditions urine contains urea, uric

acid, salts, water and excess ions such as potassium,

hydrogen and ammonium.

Dilute urine contains less solutes in a given volume

than blood.

Low water intake or excessive loss of water

results in concentrated urine. The kidneys conserve water by water being reabsorbed by the blood.
1. Excretion:

1.7. Urine:

1.7.2 Pathway of Urine:

1.7.2.1 How Urine Move Out Of The Kidneys:

From the collecting ducts the urine passes into the renal calyx and then into the renal pelvis.

It is then propelled along the two ureters to the bladder by peristaltic movements of the muscular walls.

It is stored in the bladder until it can be expelled through the urethra.

1. Excretion:

1.7. Urine:

1.7.2 Pathway of Urine:

1.7.2.2 How Urine Is Expelled From The Bladder:

The expulsion of urine from the bladder is called urination

A fairly full bladder holds 200 ml of urine but it can hold

more than double this. Urination is a reflex action that is

triggered by the filling of the bladder.

Impulses from the autonomic nervous system (ANS)

stimulate the bladder muscles to contract and the internal

sphincter to relax.
 Life
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1. Excretion:

1.8. Homeostasis of Blood:

Homeostasis is the tendency of living organisms to maintain a constant composition of their internal environment.

If its constancy is not maintained the functioning of the body will be negatively affected.

1.8.1 Homeostatic Control of pH Levels of the Blood:

1.8.1.1 The Ph Of The Blood Is Regulated By:

the amount of hydrogen ions (which are acidic) and

bicarbonate ions (which are alkaline) present.

1.8.1.2 If The Blood Becomes Too Acidic (Ph Too Low):

Then the tubules extract more hydrogen ions from the blood.

More bicarbonate ions are reabsorbed back into the blood.

This increases the pH to normal.

1. Excretion:

1.8. Homeostasis of Blood:

1.8.1 Homeostatic Control of pH Levels of the Blood:

1.8.1.3 If The Blood Becomes Too Alkaline (Ph Too High):

Then the tubules extract less hydrogen ions from the blood.

Less bicarbonate ions are reabsorbed back into the blood

This decreases the pH to normal.

1.8.1.4 Diagram of the Roles Kidneys have in Balancing the Acid-Base:

1. Excretion:

1.8. Homeostasis of Blood:

1.8.2 Homeostatic Control of Water – Role of ADH:

ADH affects the permeability of the renal tubules.

Permeability is when substances are allowed to enter and leave a cell freely.

If the levels of ADH in the blood is high, then the permeability of the renal tubules increases.

If the levels of ADH in the blood decreases the permeability of the renal tubules decreases.

There are special cells in the hypothalamus called osmoreceptors.

Osmosreceptors are special cells that can pick up changes in the volume of water in the blood.

They send messages to the pituitary gland about the water levels in the body.
1. Excretion:

1.8. Homeostasis of Blood:

1.8.2 Homeostatic Control of Water – Role of ADH:

1.8.2.1 When The Body Has Too Much Water:

Due to low temperature, inactivity, or the intake of a large amount of fluids.

The volume of water in the blood increases.

The hypothalamus is stimulated.

Message is sent to the pituitary gland to secrete less ADH.

Tubules of the nephron become less permeable.

Less water is re-absorbed into the blood.

More water remains in the tubules forming very dilute urine.

Level of water in the blood decreases.

1. Excretion:

1.8. Homeostasis of Blood:

1.8.2 Homeostatic Control of Water – Role of ADH:

1.8.2.1 When The Body Has Too Little Water:

Due to high temperature, strenuous activity or not enough fluids.

The volume of water in the blood decreases.

The hypothalamus is stimulated.

Message is sent to the pituitary gland to secrete more ADH.

Tubules of the nephron become more permeable.

More water is re-absorbed into the blood.

Less water remains in the tubules forming very concentrated urine.

Level of water in the blood increases.

1. Excretion:

1.8. Homeostasis of Blood:

1.8.2 Homeostatic Control of Water – Role of ADH:

1.8.2.2 Diagram of The Homeostatic Control of Water and the Role of ADH:
1. Excretion:

1.8. Homeostasis of Blood:

1.8.3 Homeostatic Control of Salts – Role of Aldosterone:

The kidney also plays a role in the regulation of sodium in the body.

1.8.3.1 When There Is A Shortage Of Sodium Ions The Following Occurs:

The adrenal cortex secretes more aldosterone.

This causes more sodium to be reabsorbed by the blood capillaries in the distal convoluted tubules and the

collecting ducts.

This ensures that the levels of sodium in the blood is raised to normal.

1.8.3.2 When There Is Too Much Sodium Ions In The Blood The Following Occurs:

Less aldosterone is secreted.

Less sodium is reabsorbed by the blood capillaries.

More sodium is excreted by the renal tubules.

This allows the amount of sodium in the body to decrease to normal.

1. Excretion:

1.8. Homeostasis of Blood:

1.8.3 Homeostatic Control of Salts – Role of Aldosterone:

1.8.3.2 Diagram of the Homeostatic Control of Salt and the Role of Aldosterone:
 Life
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1. Excretion:

1.9. Diseases Affecting Kidney Functions:

1.9.1 Kidney Stone:

They form from salts present in the urine.

These crystals grow with time and can cause a blockage in the ureters.

They can be surgically removed or broken down into fine fragments

using laser treatment.

To reduce the chances of kidney stones drink at least 8 big

glasses of water a day.

1. Excretion:

1.9. Diseases Affecting Kidney Functions:

1.9.2 Kidney Infection:

Is common in women.

Bacterial infection starts in the bladder and spreads to the urinary tract.

19.2.1 Symptoms include:

Very high temperature.

Back and side pain.

Frequent urination.

Pain will urinating.

Blood/pus in urine.

Can be treated with antibiotics.

1. Excretion:

1.9. Diseases Affecting Kidney Functions:

1.9.3 Bilharzia:

Caused by a parasitic worm found in infected water.

It enters via the skin.

Once infected the worms live in the blood vessels

around the intestines and bladder.

It can lead to kidney damage.

1. Excretion:

1.9. Diseases Affecting Kidney Functions:

1.9.3 Kidney Failure::

Results when the kidneys fail to remove water, salts and wastes from the blood.

This results in death.

Haemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis is available to patients who are suffering from kidney failure.
1. Excretion:

1.9. Diseases Affecting Kidney Functions:

1.9.4 Dialysis::

The separation of particles in a liquid on the basis of differences in their ability to pass through a membrane.

Kidney dialysis is a treatment that filters and purifies the blood using a machine.

This helps keep your fluids and electrolytes in balance when the kidneys can’t do their job.

Dialysis has been used since the 1940s to treat people with kidney problems.

The usual treatment for a person with kidney failure is to have several sessions a week using a dialysis unit

(a kidney machine), to maintain the glucose and protein concentration in blood diffusion of urea from blood to dialysis

fluid.

A patient with kidney failure needs to have toxic chemicals removed from the blood to stay alive.
1. Excretion:

1.9. Diseases Affecting Kidney Functions:

1.9.4 Dialysis::

1.9.4.1 Diagram of Dialysis

1. Excretion:

1.9. Diseases Affecting Kidney Functions:

1.9.4 Dialysis::

1.9.4.1 Discussion of Dialysis:

Blood is removed from a vein in the arm, and is kept moving through dialysis tubing in the dialysis machine using a

pump.

The tubing is very long to provide a large surface area.

The dialysis fluid has a composition similar to blood plasma, but with no urea or uric acid.

Urea or uric acid and excess mineral salts are removed from the blood, by diffusion, into the dialysis fluid.

The cleaned blood is then passed through a bubble trap to remove any air bubbles, before being returned

to the patient’s vein.

The dialysis fluid is constantly being "refreshed" to maintain the concentration gradient to allow the

waste products to move by diffusion from the blood into the dialysis fluid.
1. Excretion:

1.9. Diseases Affecting Kidney Functions:

1.9.5 Kidney Transplant:

Operation is expensive but once off.

May have difficulty in finding a donor.

Can lead to rejection of kidney.

Some religious beliefs prevent organ donation.