Dr.

Ahmad Salman
DSP

Content and Figures are from Discrete-Time Signal Processing, 2e by Oppenheim, Shafer, and Buck, ©1999-2000 Prentice Hall Inc.
 Chapter-3
The z-Transform
• Counterpart of the Laplace transform for discrete-time signals
• Generalization of the Fourier Transform
– Fourier Transform does not exist for all signals
• The z-Transform is often time more convenient to use
• Definition:

Xz    xn z n

n  

• Compare to DTFT definition:

    xn e

j  j n
Xe
n  

• z is a complex variable that can be represented as z=r ej

• Substituting z=ej will reduce the z-transform to DTFT

2
 The z-transform and the DTFT
• The z-transform is a function of the complex z variable
• Convenient to describe on the complex z-plane
• If we plot z=ej for =0 to 2 we get the unit circle

Im  
X e j

Unit Circle

r=1
 0
Re 
2 0 2

3
 Convergence of the z-Transform
• DTFT does not always converge
    xn e

j  j n
Xe
n  
– Infinite sum not always finite if x[n] no absolute summable
– Example: x[n] = anu[n] for |a|>1 does not have a DTFT

• Complex variable z can be written as r ej so the z-transform

    xnre   
 
X re j j  n
  xn r  n e  jn
n   n  

• DTFT of x[n] multiplied with exponential sequence r -n

– For certain choices of r the sum maybe made finite



 xn r
n  
-n


4
 Convergence of the z-Transform
• Rule of thumb:

– Try to apply either Finite Geometric Series or Infinite Geometric

Series to the formula of z-transform (and also Fourier Transform!)

– The condition on the series will tell you directly the Region where
z-transform will converge.

N2 N1 N2 1
a  a

n  N1
an 
1a


1
 
a n

n 0 1 a

5
 Region of Convergence
• The set of values of z for which the z-transform converges
• Each value of r represents a circle of radius r
• The region of convergence is made of circles
• Example: z-transform converges for
values of 0.5<r<2
Im – ROC is shown on the left
– In this example the ROC includes the
unit circle, so DTFT exists

Re • Not all sequence have a z-transform

• Example: xn  coson

– Does not converge for any r
– No ROC, No z-transform
– But DTFT exists?!

6
 Right-Sided Exponential Sequence Example

 az 
 
xn  a un n
 Xz    a unz
n n
 1 n

n   n0

• For Convergence we require Im

 n
 az
n0
1


• Hence the ROC is defined as

a 1
o x Re

• In the ROC series converges to

 1 z

Xz    az 1 
n

n0 1  az 1 z  a
• Geometric series formula • Region outside the circle of
N2 N1 N2 1 radius a is the ROC
a  a
 an 
1a
• Right-sided sequence ROCs
n  N1
extend outside a circle
7
 Same Example Alternative Way

 az 
 
xn  a un
n
 Xz    a unzn n
 1 n

n   n0
N2
N1  N2 1

n  N1
n
 
1

az   az 
1 0 1 

 az   1  az

1 n
1
n0

• For the term with infinite exponential to vanish we need

az 1  1  a  z

– Determines the ROC (same as the previous approach)

• In the ROC the sum converges to

 az 

1
Xz   1 n

n0 1  az 1
8
 Two-Sided Exponential Sequence Example
n n
 1 1
xn     un -   u- n - 1
 3 2
1 1
ROC :  z 1
3
1
 z
3
1 1
1 n ROC : z  1
 1 1  1 2
  z  
n    2  1  1 z 1 1
2  z Im
2

 1 
2z z   1 1
1 1  12  
Xz     3x oo
2
x Re
1 1  1  1 1
1  z 1 1  z 1  z   z   12
3 2  3  2
9
 Finite Length Sequence
an 0  n  N  1
xn  
0 otherwise

1  az 
1 N
1 zN  aN
 az   1  az
N 1 N 1
Xz   a z n n
 1 n
1
 N 1
n0 n0 z za

10
 Properties of The ROC of Z-Transform
• The ROC is a ring or disk centered at the origin
• DTFT exists if and only if the ROC includes the unit circle
• The ROC cannot contain any poles
• The ROC for finite-length sequence is the entire z-plane
– except possibly z=0 and z=
• The ROC for a right-handed sequence extends outward from
the outermost pole possibly including z= 
• The ROC for a left-handed sequence extends inward from the
innermost pole possibly including z=0
• The ROC of a two-sided sequence is a ring bounded by poles
• The ROC must be a connected region
• A z-transform does not uniquely determine a sequence
without specifying the ROC

11
 Stability, Causality, and the ROC
• Consider a system with impulse response h[n]
• The z-transform H(z) and the pole-zero plot shown below
• Without any other information h[n] is not uniquely determined
– |z|>2 or |z|<½ or ½<|z|<2
• If system stable ROC must include unit-circle: ½<|z|<2
• If system is causal must be right sided: |z|>2

12
 The Inverse Z-Transform
• Formal inverse z-transform is based on a Cauchy integral
• Less formal ways sufficient most of the time
– Inspection method
– Partial fraction expansion
– Power series expansion
• Inspection Method
– Make use of known z-transform pairs such as
1
anun 
Z
 z  a
1  az 1

– Example: The inverse z-transform of

n
1 1 1
Xz   z   xn    un
1 2 2
1  z 1
2

13
 Inverse Z-Transform by Partial Fraction Expansion
• Assume that a given z-transform can be expressed as
M

b z k
k

Xz   k 0
N

 k
a
k 0
z k

• Apply partial fractional expansion

M N N
Ak s
Cm
Xz   B z r
  
r 0
r
k 1,k  i 1  dk z
1

m 1 1  d z
i
1

m

• First term exist only if M>N

– Br is obtained by long division
• Second term represents all first order poles
• Third term represents an order s pole
– There will be a similar term for every high-order pole
• Each term can be inverse transformed by inspection
14
 Partial Fractional Expression

M N N
Ak s
Cm
Xz   B z r
   
r 0
r
k 1,k  i 1  dk z 1

m 1 1  d z
i
1

m

• Coefficients are given as

 
Ak  1  dk z 1 Xz  z  d
k

Cm 
1
s  m!  di  s m
 ds m
 s m
 s
 
1 
1  diw X w 
 dw w  di1

• Easier to understand with examples

15
 Example: 2nd Order Z-Transform
1 1
Xz   ROC : z 
 1 1  1 1  2
 1  z  1  z 
 4  2 
– Order of nominator is smaller than denominator (in terms of z -1)
– No higher order pole
A1 A2
Xz   
 1 1   1 1 
1  z  1  z 
 4   2 

 1 1  1
A1  1  z Xz    1
 4  1  1 1
1

z
4 1    
 2  4 
 
 1  1
A 2  1  z 1 Xz   2
 2  1  1 1
1

z
2 1    
 4 2 
 
16
 Example Continued
1 2 1
Xz    z 
 1 1   1 1  2
 1  z   1  z 
 4   2 

• ROC extends to infinity

– Indicates right sided sequence

n n
1 1
xn  2  un -   un
2  4

17
 Example #2

Xz  
1  2z 1  z 2


1  z 1 
2

z 1
3 1 1

1  z 1  z 2 1  z 1  1  z 1
2 2 2

 
• Long division to obtain
 1  5z 1
Xz   2 
2
1 2 3 1 2
z  z  1 z  2z
1
1
 1 1 
1  z  1  z
2
1
 
 
2 2
z 2  3z 1  2 A1 A2
Xz   2  
5z 1  1 1 1 1  z 1
1 z
2

 1 
A1  1  z 1 Xz 
 2  1
 9  
A 2  1  z 1 Xz 
z 1
8
z
2

18
 Example #2 Continued
9 8
Xz   2   z 1
1  1 1  z 1
1 z
2

• ROC extends to infinity

– Indicates right-sides sequence

n
1
xn  2n  9  un - 8un
2

19
 Inverse Z-Transform by Power Series Expansion
• The z-transform is power series

Xz    xn z
n  
n

• In expanded form
Xz     x 2 z2  x 1 z1  x0  x1 z 1  x2 z 2  

• Z-transforms of this form can generally be inversed easily

• Especially useful for finite-length series
• Example
 1 
 
Xz   z2 1  z 1  1  z 1 1  z 1
2

 
1 1
 z2  z  1  z 1
2 2
1 1
xn  n  2  n  1  n  n  1
2 2
20
 Z-Transform Properties: Linearity
• Notation
xn 
Z
 Xz  ROC  R x
• Linearity
ax1 n  bx2 n 
Z
 aX1 z   bX2 z  ROC  R x1  R x2

– Note that the ROC of combined sequence may be larger than

either ROC
– This would happen if some pole/zero cancellation occurs
– Example:
xn  a un - a un - N
n n

• Both sequences are right-sided

• Both sequences have a pole z=a
• Both have a ROC defined as |z|>|a|
• In the combined sequence the pole at z=a cancels with a zero at z=a
• The combined ROC is the entire z plane except z=0
• We did make use of this property already, where?

21
 Z-Transform Properties: Time Shifting
xn  no  
Z
 z no Xz  ROC  R x

• Here no is an integer
– If positive the sequence is shifted right
– If negative the sequence is shifted left
• The ROC can change the new term may
– Add or remove poles at z=0 or z=
• Example
 
 1  1
Xz   z 
1
 z 
 1  1 z 1  4
 
 4 

n-1
1
xn    un - 1
 4

22
Z-Transform Properties: Multiplication by Exponential
zno xn 
Z
 Xz / zo  ROC  zo R x

• ROC is scaled by |zo|

• All pole/zero locations are scaled
• If zo is a positive real number: z-plane shrinks or expands
• If zo is a complex number with unit magnitude it rotates
• Example: We know the z-transform pair
1
un Z
 -1
ROC : z  1
1- z
• Let’s find the z-transform of
1
2
 1

xn  r n cosonun  re jo un  re  jo un
n

2
n
 
1/2 1/2
Xz    z r
1  re jo z 1 1  re  jo z 1

23
 Z-Transform Properties: Conjugation

x* n 
Z
 X * z*   ROC  R x

• Example

Xz    xn z n

n  

 
 
X z     xn z n  

 x n z  n

 n    n  

   x n z    x n z  
 

X z    n   n
 Z x n
n   n  

24
 Z-Transform Properties: Time Reversal
1
x n 
Z
 X1 / z  ROC 
Rx
• ROC is inverted
• Example:
xn  anu n

• Time reversed version of a un

n

1 - a-1z 1
Xz    z  a1
1  az 1 - a-1z 1

25
 Z-Transform Properties: Convolution
x1 n  x2 n 
Z
 X1 z X2 z  ROC : R x1  R x2
• Convolution in time domain is multiplication in z-domain
• Example:Let’s calculate the convolution of
x1 n  anun and x2 n  un
1 1
X1 z   ROC : z  a X 2 z   ROC : z  1
1  az 1 1  z 1
• Multiplications of z-transforms is
1
Y z   X1 z X2 z  
 
1  az 1 1  z 1 
• ROC: if |a|<1 ROC is |z|>1 if |a|>1 ROC is |z|>|a|
• Partial fractional expansion of Y(z)

yn 
1
1a

un  an1un 
26
 Z-Transform Properties: Differentiation
dXz 
nxn  Z
 z ROC  R x
dz
• Example: We want the inverse z-transform of


Xz   log 1  az 1  z  a

• Let’s differentiate to obtain rational expression

dXz   az2 dXz  1 1
 1
 z  az
dz 1  az dz 1  az1

• Making use of z-transform properties and ROC

nxn  a a un  1

n 1

an
xn   1 un  1
n 1

n
27