EDU 801

RESEARCH METHODS IN EDUCATION

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS AND DESIGNS IN

EDUCATION: CASE STUDIES, ETHNOGRAPHY AND CONTENT
ANALYSIS
CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
• Qualitative research digs deep by collecting numerous forms of data, examine them from
various angles in order to construct meaningful picture of a complex, multifaceted situation
• Focuses on phenomena that occur in real world
• Study phenomena in all their complexity
• Recognize that issues have many dimensions and layers
• Portray the issue in its multifaceted form
• Emphasizes understanding and meaning based on verbal interactions and observations
rather than numbers
• Triangulation is often employed during data collection
• the design is flexible and enables a researcher to be responsive and to pursue new paths of
discovery as they emerge
• Complete objectivity is impossible in this research as empathy is involved. Nonjudgmental
position of researcher to whatever emerges is advised
NATURE OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
PROBLEMS AND PLANNING OF THE RESEARCH
Qualitative researchers often formulate only general research problems
and ask only general questions about the phenomenon being studied.
EG. What is the nature of the culture of people living in Sambisa forest?
how can a teacher use principles from behaviorist psychology to help a
student with autism succeed in a primary school classroom? As the
study proceeds, the researcher gains increasing understanding of the
phenomenon under investigation and becomes able to ask specific
questions and formulate specific hypotheses.
AREAS OF USE AND TYPES OF
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
• Disciplines: anthropology, sociology, history, political science,
medicine, psychology, education and philosophy.
TYPES
Case study
Ethnography
Content analysis
Phenomenology
Historical research
Grounded theory studies
STEPS IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
• Identify a phenomenon to be studied
• Identify participants through purposive sampling to ensure sample possess
characteristics relevant to the study.
• Generate hypotheses which might be discovered immediately, reconsidered,
dropped or modified as the study proceeds
• Collect data: this is ongoing through continual observation, interviews and
relevant documents
• Analyze data into coherent description of what has been observed
• Draw conclusion: this is a continuous exercise throughout the course of the
study. Eg a write-up of daily observation and interpretations of the
observations might be done required
WHEN TO CHOOSE A QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
• Description: They can reveal the nature of certain situations, settings,
processes, relationships, systems or people.
• Interpretation: They enable researchers to gain new insights about a particular
phenomenon, develop new concepts or theoretical perspectives about the
phenomenon and discover problems that exist within the phenomenon
• Verification: They allow researchers to test the validity of certain assumptions,
claims, theories or generalizations within real-world contexts
• Evaluation: They provide a means through which a researcher can judge the
effectiveness of particular policies, practices, innovations and programmes
They do not allow researchers to identify cause-effect relationships that can
answer such questions as, what caused what? Or why did such and such happen?
CASE STUDY
In a case study, a particular individual, programme or event is studied in
depth for defined period of time. Eg. A researcher might want to study
and analyse instructional strategies that a teacher uses to teach a
particular subject in a secondary school that is doing very well in the
subject. A single case study might be carried out, or multiple/collective
case study where two or more cases that differ in certain key ways to
make comparisons, build theory, or propose generalizations. Case study
might be suitable for a little known or poorly understood situation. It
can be used to study how an individual or programme changes over
time as a result certain circumstances or interventions. It is used for
providing preliminary support for hypotheses. One major weakness is
that we cannot be sure that findings are generalizable to other
situations.
METHOD
The researcher collects extensive data on what is being studied using
observation, interview, documents, past records and audiovisual
materials for extended period of time.
The researcher also records details about the context surrounding the
case, including information about physical environment and any
historical, economic and social factors that have bearing on the
situation. By identifying context, the readers of the case study are
helped to draw conclusions about extent of generalizableness of the
finding to other situations.
DATA ANALYSIS
• Organization of details about the case: The specific facts about the case are
arranged in a logical order.
• Categorization of data: Cluster the data into groups eg study on course of a
political campaign, data can be clustered into campaign strategies, fund-raising
activities, setbacks, etc.
• Interpretation of single instances: Specific documents, occurrences and other bits
of data are examined for specific meanings they might have in relation to the case.
• Identification of patterns: data interpretations are scrutinized for underlying
themes and other patterns that characterize the case more broadly than a single
piece of information.
• Synthesis and Generalizations: an overall picture of the case is constructed.
Conclusions are drawn that may have implications beyond the specific case.
REPORTING A CASE STUDY
Report on a case study should include the following:
• A rationale for the study: why do you think the case was worthy of in-depth study?
• Detailed description of the facts related to the case: describe specific individuals,
programmes or events studied, as well as the setting and any other uncontested
facts about the case. This should be done as thoroughly and as objectively as
possible.
• Description of data collected: what observations were made? Who was interviewed?
What documents were examined? And so on.
• Discuss patterns found: Describe any trends, themes, personality characteristics and
so on that the data suggest. Support each pattern identified with sufficient evidence
to convince readers that the patters do in fact accurately portray the data.
• A connection to the larger scheme of things: there is need to answer the question so
what? What does the case study contribute to knowledge about some aspects of
human experience? You might argue that that the case either supports or refutes an
existing hypothesis or theory. Or use the case to support the contention that a
particular intervention is highly effective.
ETHNOGRAPHY
In ethnography, the researcher studies an entire group that
shares a common culture- in depth and in its natural setting
for a lengthy period of time. The focus of the investigation is
on everyday behaviour ( eg language, interactions, rituals) of
the people in the group, with the intent to identify cultural
norms, beliefs, social structures and other cultural patterns.
Ethnography is useful for gaining an understanding of the
complexities of a particular intact culture. It allows
considerable flexibility in the choice of methods used to
obtain information about the culture.
FEATURES OF ETHNOGRAPHY
• Involves investigation of very few cases in details
• Involves working with primary unconstructed data
• Emphasis is on exploration of social phenomenon
• Data anlysis involves interpretation of functions and meanings of
human actions
• Focuses on describing the culture of a group in very detailed and
complex manner
• Researcher looks at patterns of group’s mental activities, beliefs,
behaviour expressed through their actions by gathering information
on what is available, normal, what they do, eat, wear, language and
how they work.
METHOD
Best method is site-based fieldwork. Prolonged engagement in the
cultural group’s natural setting gives the researcher time to observe and
record processes that would be almost impossible to learn about using
any other approach.
Step one in ethnography is to gain access to a site appropriate for
answering the researcher’s general research problem or question. The
site should be one in which the researcher is a ‘stranger’ and has no
vested interest in the outcome of the study. A familiar site to the
researcher may be more accessible but being close to the situation
makes it difficult for him/her to look at it with sufficient detachment to
gain realistic perspective of the process being observed.
To gain entry to a site, the researcher needs to go through a gatekeeper-
someone who can provide a smooth entrance into site. The person can
be a tribal chief in a community, a principal or teacher in a school or
 METHOD CONT’D
After gaining entry, the researcher must establish rapport with the people being
studied and gain their trust. Initially, the researcher intermingles with everyone
and be getting an overall sense of the cultural context. Gradually, he/she
identifies key informants who can provide information and insights relevant to
the research question and can facilitate contacts with other useful individuals.
In some cases, the researcher may engage in participant observation, becoming
immersed in the daily life of the people. The advantage here, is that he/she may
gain insight about the culture that could not be obtained in any other way the
disadvantage however, is that he/she may become so emotionally involved as to
lose the ability to assess the situation accurately.
Throughout the field work, the researcher is a careful observer, interviewer and
listener. Fieldnotes are extensively taken in form of dialogues, diagrams, maps,
etc. Lengthy conversations can be recorded using audiotapes and videotapes.
Artifacts and record may also be collected from the group. Considerable patience
and tolerance is needed to do a good ethnographic study.
 PROCEDURE FOR ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDY
• Determine if ethnography is the appropriate design
• Identify and locate a culture-sharing group to study
• Select cultural themes issues or theories to study about the group eg
interactions in ordinary settings, life cycle, events,etc
• Collect information in context or in settings where the group works or lives
• Analyse information
• generalize on how the culture-sharing group works or lives.
DATA ANALYSIS
Data analysis here occurs simultaneously, typically involving the following:
1. Description: the information obtained is organized into a logical
structure by a. describing the events in chronological order
b. Describing a typical day in the life of the group or an individual within
the group.
c. Focusing on a critical event for the group
d. Developing a story, complete with plot and character
2. Analysis : The data are categorized according to their meanings.
Patterns, regularities and critical events are identified.
3. interpretation: the general nature of the culture is inferred from the
categories, meanings and patterns identified.
RESEARCH REPORT
• Report of an ethnographic study should include the following:
• An introduction that provides a rationale and context for the study: research
question should be presented at the beginning of te report and describe the nature
of the study as it relates both to the question ant to one or more theoretical
perspectives. Explain why the study was an important one for you to conduct and
others to read about.
• a description of the setting and method: describe the group you studied and the
methods used to study it. Details should be provided here about what people do,
say, how they interact with one another, what systems and rituals they have in place
and so on.
• An analysis of the culture studied: Describe the patterns and themes you observed.
Present evidence to support your claims. Use the participants’ actual words, perhaps
including their language or dialect as well to give account realism.
• A conclusion: relate your findings to your research questions and to concepts and
theories in your discipline.
 CONTENT ANALYSIS
A content analysis is a detailed and systematic examination of the contents of
a particular body of material for the purpose of identifying patterns, themes or
biases. It is typically performed on forms of human communication, including
books, newspapers, films, television, art, music, video tapes of human
interactions and transcripts of conversations. Eg. Content analysis can be used
to determine what religious symbols appear in works of art, how teachers
spend their time in the classroom, what attitude are reflected in speeches or
newspaper articles of a particular era in history.
Content analysis can also be defined as the analysis of the manifest and latent
content of a body of communication material through classification, tabulation
and evaluation of its key symbols and themes in order to ascertain its meaning
and probable effect.
CONTENT ANALYSIS CONT’D
Content analysis involves reading and observation of texts or artifacts which
are assigned labels/codes to indicate presence or absence of pieces of
content of interest. Can be done these days by computer by having
communication in machine readable texts.
Types of texts
Written, oral(speech and theatrical performance, iconic text(drawings,
paintings, icons), audio-visual eg. TV programmes, hypertexts-texts found on
internet.
Uses of Content Analysis
1. Making inferences about the antecedents of a communication.
2. Describe and make inferences about characteristics of a communication.
3. Make inferences about the effects of a communication.
Questions to answer: who, why, how, what, to whom, what effect,
responses, flow of information, readability.
The researcher defines a specific research problem
or question at the very beginning eg, do
contemporary television commercials reflect
traditional gender stereotypes?. The researcher
identifies the sample to be studied and the method
of analysis early in the process. A content analysis
can be incorporated into a cross-sectional study, ex
post facto study or quasi-experimental study.
METHOD
• The researcher identifies the specific body of material to be studied. If it is
small, all is studied but if large, a sample is selected.
• The researcher defines the characteristics or qualities to be examined in
precise concrete terms.
• If the material to be analyzed is involves complex or lengthy items, the
researcher breaks down each item into small manageable segments that are
analyzed separately.
• the researcher scrutinizes the material for instance for each characteristic or
quality defined in step 2. when judgments are purely objective (like looking
for the appearance of certain words in a text), only one judge or rater is
necessary but when judgments are more subjective( like evaluating a
teacher’s behaviour for the specific activities that each behaviour reflects),
two or three raters are typically involved and a composite of their judgments
used.
 DATA ANALYSIS
Almost invariably, one crucial step of content analysis is to tabulate the
frequency of each characteristic found in the material being studied. A
content analysis is therefore both quantitative and qualitative. In some
situations, statistical analyses are performed on the frequencies and
percentages to test for significant difference relevant to the research
question. The researcher then uses the tabulations and statistical analysis to
interpret the data as they reflect on the problem under investigation.
REPORT OF CONTENT ANALYSIS
The report should include the following:
1. A description of the body of material studied: describe the overall body of
material you wanted to investigate and any sampling procedure used to
select specific items or artifacts from it.
2. Precise definition and description of characteristics looked for: each
characteristic should be defined precisely that another researcher can
replicate the study
3. The coding or rating procedure: describe the procedure the rater/s used to
evaluate the material and if applicable how multiple ratings were combined.
4. Tabulation for each characteristic: report frequencies or percentages or both
for each characteristic. Tables or graphs can be used in reporting this.
5. A description of pattern that data reflect: identify themes or trends in the
material as reflected in the table.