CSM 395

Artificial Intelligence

D R . ( M R S ) R O S E - M A RY O W U S U A A M E N S A H
GYENING
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 What is Artificial Intelligence ?
•Making computers that think?

•The automation of activities we associate with human thinking,

like decision making, learning ... ?

2
 What is Artificial Intelligence ?
•The art of creating machines that perform functions that
require intelligence when performed by people?

•The study of mental faculties through the use of computational

models?

3
 What is Artificial Intelligence ?
•The study of computations that make it possible to perceive,
reason and act?

•A field of study that seeks to explain and emulate intelligent

behaviour in terms of computational processes?

4
 What is Artificial Intelligence ?
•A branch of computer science that is concerned with the
automation of intelligent behaviour?

•Anything in Computing Science that we don't yet know how to

do properly? (!)

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 Artificial Intelligence
•A computer can do some things better than a human can.
◦ Adding a thousand four-digit numbers.
◦ Drawing complex, 3D images.
◦ Store and retrieve massive amounts of data.

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 Artificial Intelligence
•However, there are things humans can do much better.

•The study of computer systems that attempt to model and

apply the intelligence of the human mind.
◦ For example, writing a program to pick out objects in a
picture.

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 Introduction
•In Figure 1.1 we see eight definitions of AI, laid out along two
dimensions.

•The definitions on top are concerned with thought processes

and reasoning, whereas the ones on the bottom address
behaviour.

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9
 Introduction
•The definitions on the left measure success in terms of fidelity
to human performance, whereas the ones on the right measure
against an ideal performance measure, called rationality.

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 Introduction
•A system is rational if it does the “right thing,” given what it
knows.

• Historically, all four approaches to AI have been followed, each

by different people with different methods.

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 Thinking Humanly
•“The exciting new effort to make computers think ... machines
with minds, in the full and literal sense.” (Haugeland, 1985)

•“[The automation of] activities that we associate with human

thinking, activities such as decision-making, problem solving,
learning ...” (Bellman, 1978)

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 Thinking Rationally
•“The study of mental faculties through the use of computational
models.” (Charniak and McDermott, 1985)

•“The study of the computations that make it possible to

perceive, reason, and act.” (Winston, 1992)

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 Acting Humanly
•“The art of creating machines that perform functions that
require intelligence when performed by people.” (Kurzweil,
1990)

•“The study of how to make computers do things at which, at the

moment, people are better.” (Rich and Knight, 1991)

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 Acting Rationally
•“Computational Intelligence is the study of the design of
intelligent agents.” (Poole et al., 1998)

•“AI . . . is concerned with intelligent behavior in artifacts.”

(Nilsson, 1998)

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 Acting humanly: The Turing Test
approach
•The Turing Test, proposed by Alan Turing (1950), was designed
to provide a satisfactory operational definition of intelligence.

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 Acting humanly: The Turing Test
approach
•A computer passes the test if a human interrogator, after posing
some written questions, cannot tell whether the written
responses come from a person or from a computer.

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 The Turing Test
•A test to empirically determine whether a computer has
achieved intelligence

Figure 13.2
In a Turing test, the interrogator
must determine which
respondent is the computer and
which is the human
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 The Turing Test
•Passing the Turing Test does not truly show that the machine
was thinking.

•It simply shows that it generated behaviour consistent with

thinking.

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 The Turing Test
•Weak equivalence: the two systems (human and computer) are
equivalent in results (output), but they do not necessarily arrive
at those results in the same way

•Strong equivalence: the two systems use the same internal

processes to produce results

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 Acting humanly: The Turing Test
approach
•For now, we note that programming a computer to pass a
rigorously applied test provides plenty to work on.

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 Acting humanly: The Turing Test
approach
•The computer would need to possess the following capabilities:
◦ Natural language processing to enable it to communicate
successfully in English;
◦ Knowledge representation to store what it knows or hears;

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 Acting humanly: The Turing Test
approach
◦ Automated reasoning to use the stored information to answer
questions and to draw new conclusions;
◦ Machine learning to adapt to new circumstances and to
detect and extrapolate patterns.

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 Acting humanly: The Turing Test
approach
•Turing’s test deliberately avoided direct physical interaction
between the interrogator and the computer, because physical
simulation of a person is unnecessary for intelligence.

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 Acting humanly: The Turing Test
approach
•However, the so-called total Turing Test includes a video signal
so that the interrogator can test the subject’s perceptual
abilities, as well as the opportunity for the interrogator to pass
physical objects “through the hatch.”

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 Acting humanly: The Turing Test
approach
•To pass the total Turing Test, the computer will need,
◦ Computer vision to perceive objects, and
◦ Robotics to manipulate objects and move about.

•These six disciplines compose most of AI, and Turing deserves

credit for designing a test that remains relevant 60 years later.

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 Acting rationally: The rational agent
approach
•An agent is just something that acts (agent comes from the
Latin word agere, to do).

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 Acting rationally: The rational agent
approach
•Of course, all computer programs do something, but computer
agents are expected to do more:
◦ Operate autonomously, perceive their environment, persist
over a prolonged time period, adapt to change, and create
and pursue goals.

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 Acting rationally: The rational agent
approach
•A rational agent is one that acts so as to achieve the best
outcome or, when there is uncertainty, the best expected
outcome.

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 Acting rationally: The rational agent
approach
•Making correct inferences is sometimes part of being a rational
agent, because one way to act rationally is to reason logically to
the conclusion that a given action will achieve one’s goals and
then to act on that conclusion.

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 The foundations of artificial intelligence
•Philosophy
◦ Can formal rules be used to draw valid conclusions?
◦ How does the mind arise from a physical brain?
◦ Where does knowledge come from?
◦ How does knowledge lead to action?

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 The foundations of artificial intelligence
•Mathematics
◦ What are the formal rules to draw valid conclusions?
◦ What can be computed?
◦ How do we reason with uncertain information?

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 The foundations of artificial intelligence
•Philosophers staked out some of the fundamental ideas of AI,
but the leap to a formal science required a level of
mathematical formalization in three fundamental areas: logic,
computation, and probability.

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 The foundations of artificial intelligence
•Economics
◦ How should we make decisions so as to maximize payoff?
◦ How should we do this when others may not go along?
◦ How should we do this when the payoff may be far in the
future?

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 The foundations of artificial intelligence
•The science of economics got its start in 1776, when Scottish
philosopher Adam Smith (1723–1790) published An Inquiry into
the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations.

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 The foundations of artificial intelligence
•Neuroscience
◦ How do brains process information?

•Neuroscience is the study of the nervous system, particularly

the brain.

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 The foundations of artificial intelligence
•Psychology
◦ How do humans and animals think and act?

•Computer engineering
◦ How can we build an efficient computer?

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 The foundations of artificial intelligence
•For artificial intelligence to succeed, we need two things:
intelligence and an artifact. The computer has been the artifact
of choice.

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 The foundations of artificial intelligence
•Control theory and cybernetics
◦ How can artifacts operate under their own control?

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 Artificial Intelligence

Artificial intelligence (AI) is that can learn to

is a branch of computer
the intelligence of a Artificial intelligence (AI) is autonomously make
science that focuses on
machine or computer that also known as machine decisions and carry out
building and managing
enables it to imitate or intelligence actions on behalf of a
technology
mimic human capabilities human being

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Types Of Artificial Intelligence

Narrow AI (Weak AI)

 Deep Blue, a computer

created by IBM that beat
AI systems that are designed to world chess champion
perform a specific task or a set of Gary Kasparov in a six-
closely related tasks. game match in 1997

 Smart assistants like Siri,

Alexa and Cortana
It is limited in scope.
 Self-driving cars

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General AI (Strong AI)

Represents a theoretical form of artificial intelligence (AI) that

can solve any task using human-like cognitive abilities.

Systems can comprehend, learn, and apply information across

many domains.

General AI is still a far off reality, as the tools required to build it

are not available today

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Branches in
AI

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Trending AI systems/applications

ChatGPT: An AI language model designed to assist and engage

in diverse conversations across various topics.

Gemini previously Google Bard: Google's conversational AI

chatbot, meant to function similarly to ChatGPT, however
providing up-to-date feedback to queries

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Trending AI
systems/applications
Otter AI: an innovative transcription and note-
taking app designed to capture and organize
spoken conversations and lectures.

Lensa AI: an advanced photo editing app utilizing

artificial intelligence to enhance and retouch
portraits with professional quality results.

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 The state of the art
•What can AI do today? A concise answer is difficult because
there are so many activities in so many subfields.

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 The state of the art
•Here we sample a few applications

•Robotic vehicles: A driverless robotic car named STANLEY sped

through the rough terrain of the Mojave dessert at 22 mph,
finishing the 132-mile course first to win the 2005 DARPA Grand
Challenge.

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 The state of the art
◦ STANLEY is a Volkswagen Touareg outfitted with cameras,
radar, and laser rangefinders to sense the environment and
onboard software to command the steering, braking, and
acceleration (Thrun, 2006).

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 The state of the art
◦ The following year CMU’s BOSS won the Urban Challenge,
safely driving in traffic through the streets of a closed Air Force
base, obeying traffic rules and avoiding pedestrians and other
vehicles.

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 The state of the art
◦ Speech recognition: A traveler
calling United Airlines to book a
flight can have the entire
conversation guided by an
automated speech recognition
and dialog management system.

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 The state of the art
◦ Autonomous planning and scheduling: A hundred million
miles from Earth, NASA’s Remote Agent program became the
first on-board autonomous planning program to control the
scheduling of operations for a spacecraft.

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 The state of the art
◦ Game playing: IBM’s DEEP BLUE
became the first computer program
to defeat the world champion in a
chess match when it beat Garry
Kasparov by a score of 3.5 to 2.5 in
an exhibition match.

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 The state of the art
◦ Spam fighting: Each day, learning algorithms classify over a
billion messages as spam, saving the recipient from having to
waste time deleting what, for many users, could comprise 80%
or 90% of all messages, if not classified away by algorithms.

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 The state of the art
◦ Because the spammers are continually updating their tactics,
it is difficult for a static programmed approach to keep up, and
learning algorithms work best.

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 The state of the art
◦ Logistics planning: During the Persian Gulf crisis of 1991, U.S.
forces deployed a Dynamic Analysis and Replanning Tool,
DART (Cross and Walker, 1994), to do automated logistics
planning and scheduling for transportation.

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 The state of the art
◦ This involved up to 50,000 vehicles, cargo, and people at a
time, and had to account for starting points, destinations,
routes, and conflict resolution among all parameters.

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 The state of the art
◦ Robotics: The iRobot
Corporation has sold over
two million Roomba robotic
vacuum cleaners for home
use.

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 The state of the art
◦ The company also deploys the
more rugged PackBot to Iraq
and Afghanistan, where it is
used to handle hazardous
materials, clear explosives, and
identify the location of snipers.

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 The state of the art
◦ Machine Translation: A computer program automatically
translates from Arabic to English, allowing an English speaker
to see the headline “Ardogan Confirms That Turkey Would Not
Accept Any Pressure, Urging Them to Recognize Cyprus.”

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 The state of the art
◦ The program uses a statistical model built from examples of
Arabic-to-English translations and from examples of English
text totaling two trillion words.

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 Some Advantages of Artificial
Intelligence
•More powerful and more useful computers.

•New and improved interfaces.

•Solving new problems.

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 Some Advantages of Artificial
Intelligence
•Better handling of information.

•Relieves information overload.

•Conversion of information into knowledge.

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 The Disadvantages
•Increased costs.

•Difficulty with software development - slow and expensive.

•Few experienced programmers.

•Few practical products have reached the market as yet.

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 Summary
•Philosophers (going back to 400 B.C.) made AI conceivable by
considering the ideas that the mind is in some ways like a
machine.
◦ That it operates on knowledge encoded in some internal
language, and;
◦ That thought can be used to choose what actions to take.
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 Summary
•Mathematicians provided the tools to manipulate statements of
logical certainty as well as uncertain, probabilistic statements.
◦ They also set the groundwork for understanding computation
and reasoning about algorithms.

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 Summary
•Economists formalized the problem of making decisions that
maximize the expected outcome to the decision maker.

•Neuroscientists discovered some facts about how the brain

works and the ways in which it is similar to and different from
computers.

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 Summary
•Psychologists adopted the idea that humans and animals can be
considered information-processing machines.

•Linguists showed that language use fits into this model.

•Computer engineers provided the ever-more-powerful

machines that make AI applications possible.

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 Summary
•Control theory deals with designing devices that act optimally
on the basis of feedback from the environment.
◦ Initially, the mathematical tools of control theory were quite
different from AI, but the fields are coming closer together.

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 Summary
•The history of AI has had cycles of success, misplaced optimism,
and resulting cutbacks in enthusiasm and funding.
◦ There have also been cycles of introducing new creative
approaches and systematically refining the best ones.

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 Summary
•AI has advanced more rapidly in the past decade because of
greater use of the scientific method in experimenting with and
comparing approaches.

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 Summary
•Recent progress in understanding the theoretical basis for
intelligence has gone hand in hand with improvements in the
capabilities of real systems.
◦ The subfields of AI have become more integrated, and AI has
found common ground with other disciplines.0

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