4.

Mechanical
cc Springs
– Introduction
– Types of springs
– spring material
– Stress in helical springs
– Design of helical Compression Spring
– Deign of Helical Tensile spring
– Design of Helical Torsion Spring
 4.1 Introduction
Springs give a relatively large elastic deflection.
• Application of springs
– Control of motion in machines
– Reduction of transmitted forces as a result of
– impact or shock loading
– Storage of energy
– Measurement of force
Flexibility is sometimes needed and is often provided by
metal bodies with cleverly controlled geometry

Such flexibility can be linear or nonlinear in relating deflection

to load.

These devices allow controlled application of force or torque;

the storing and release of energy can be another purpose
In general, spring may be classified as:

1. Wire springs such as helical springs of round

or square wire, made to resist and
deflect under tensile, compressive, and
torsional loads.
2. Flat springs which includes cantilever and
elliptical types, wound motor-or clock- type
power springs, a flat spring washers, usually
called Belleville springs.
3. Special-shaped springs
 4.2 Types of springs

Helical compression Types of Springs(1)

Figure 4.1a
Helical tensile and torsional Types of Springs (2)

Figure 4.1b
Some Types of Springs (3)

Figure 4.1c
Some Types of Springs (4)

Figure 4.1d
 4.3. Spring Materials

• Springs are manufactured either by hot- or cold-

working processes, depending upon the size of the
material, the spring index, and the properties
desired. In general, pre hardened wire should not be
used if D/d < 4 or if d > 1/4 in. Winding of the spring
induces residual stresses through bending, but
these are normal to the direction of the torsional
working stresses in a coil spring.
• Quite frequently in spring manufacture, they are
relieved, after winding, by a mild thermal treatment.
• A great variety of spring materials are available
to the designer, including plain carbon steels,
alloy steels, and corrosion-resisting steels, as
well as nonferrous materials such as phosphor
bronze, spring brass, beryllium copper, and
various nickel alloys.
• Descriptions of the most commonly used
steels will be found in table below
 4.4. design of compression Helical Springs

4.4.1. Stresses in Helical Springs

• A round-wire helical compression spring
loaded by the axial force F is shown in figure
4-2a.
Figure 4–2
(a) Axially loaded
helical spring;
(b) (b) free-body
diagram showing
that the wire is
subjected to a
direct shear and a
torsional shear.
Two important parameters in spring design:

1. The mean coil diameter D

2. The wire diameter d.

If the spring is cut at some point, the effect of the

removed portion replaced by the net internal
reactions. See figure 4-2b or 4-3.

Using the equation of equilibrium, the cut portion would

contain a direct shear force F and a torsion T=FD/2

The maximum stress in the wire may be computed by Figure 4.3

superposition of the direct shear stress and the
torsional shear stress
• Spring index

where Ks is a shear stress-correction factor and is defined by the

equation
 4.4.2. Curvature Effect
• Unfortunately, it is necessary to find the
curvature factor in a roundabout way.
The reason for this is that the published
equations also include the effect of the direct
shear stress. Suppose Ks in Eq. (4–2) is
replaced by another K factor, which corrects
for both curvature and direct shear.
Then this factor is given by either of the
equations
Wahl factor

Bergsträsser factor

curvature correction factor

largest shear stress

 4.4.3. Deflection of Helical Springs
Castigliano’s Theorem
• A most unusual, powerful, and often surprisingly simple
approach to deflection analysis is afforded by an energy
method called Castigliano’s theorem. It is a unique way
of analyzing deflections and is even useful for finding
the reactions of indeterminate structures.
• Castigliano’s theorem states that when forces act on
elastic systems subject to small displacements, the
displacement corresponding to any force, in the
direction of the force, is equal to the partial derivative of
the total strain energy with respect to that force.
 4.4.4 Compression Springs and its ends

• The four types of ends generally used for

compression springs are illustrated in Fig. 4–4.
• A spring with plain ends has a non interrupted
helicoid; the ends are the same as if a long spring
had been cut into sections. A spring with plain ends
that are squared or closed is obtained by deforming
the ends to a zero-degree helix angle. Springs
should always be both squared and ground for
important applications, because a better transfer of
the load is obtained.
 Figure 4–4
Types of
ends for
compression
springs:
(a) both ends
plain;
(b) both ends
squared;
(c) both
ends squared
and ground;
(d) both ends
plain and
ground
Table 4–1
Formulas for the
Dimensional
Characteristics of
Compression-Springs.
(Na = Number of
Active
Coils)
 4.4.5 Stability
• Similarly, compression coil springs may buckle
when the deflection becomes too large. The
critical deflection is given by the equation

the effective slenderness ratio

 Example 4.1
A helical compression spring is made of no. 16 music wire. The outside
coil diameter of the spring is 7/16 in. The ends are squared and there
are 25/2 total turns.
(a) Estimate the torsional yield strength of the wire.
(b) Estimate the static load corresponding to the yield strength.
(c) Estimate the scale of the spring.
(d) Estimate the deflection that would be caused by the load in part (b).
(e) Estimate the solid length of the spring.
( f ) What length should the spring be to ensure that when it is
compressed solid and then released, there will be no permanent
change in the free length?
(g) Given the length found in part ( f ), is buckling a possibility?
(h) What is the pitch of the body coil?
Example 10-7: A helical compression spring is made of hard-drawn
spring steel wire 0.080-in in diameter and has an outside diameter of
0.880 in. The ends are plain and ground, and there are 8 total coils.
(a) The spring is wound to a free length, which is the largest possible
with a solid-safe property. Find this free length.
(b) What is the pitch of this spring?
(c) What force is needed to compress the spring to its solid length?
(d) Estimate the spring rate.
(e ) Will the spri nng buckle in service?
Given: helical compression spring, Hard Drawn Spring steel, d = 0.080 in.
D+d = 0.880 in. The ends are plain and ground, Nt = 8.
m = 0.190, A = 140, relative cost = 1
• Sut = A/dm= 140/0.0800.190 = 226.2 kpsi
• Ssu = 0.45XSut=
• D+d = 0.880 in., D = 0.880-0.080 in. = 0.80 in.
• C = D/d = 0.80/0.080 = 11
• KB =(4C+2)/(4C-3) = (4x11+2)/(4x11-3) = 1.122
Na = Nt-1 = 8-1 = 7
Ls = dNt = 0.080x8 = 0.64 in.
Fs = (Ssyd3)/(nsKBx8xD)
= (x226.2x103x0.45x0.0803)/(1.2x1.122x8x0.8)
=18.78 lbf
k  d4G/8D3Na = 0.0803 x11.5x106/8x0.83x7
= 16.43 lbf/in.
ys = Fs/k = 18.78 lbf/16.43 lbf/in.
= 1.143 in.
Lo = Ls+ ys = 0.64 in. + 1.14 in. = 1.78 in.
p = Lo/(Na+1) = 1.78/(7+1) = 0.223 in.
Lo < 2.63 D/
Lo < 2.63*0.80/0.5
1.78 << 4.21, there is no danger of buckling
 4.4.6 Helical Compression Spring Design for
Static Service

• The design of a new spring involves the following

considerations:

 Space into which the spring must fit and operate

 Values of working forces and deflections
 Accuracy and reliability needed
 Tolerances and permissible variations in specifications
 Environmental conditions such as temperature and
presence of a corrosive atmosphere
• Designers use these factors to select a material and
specify suitable values
– for wire size,
– the number of turns,
– the diameter and free length,
– the type of ends,
– and the spring rate needed to satisfy the working
force-deflection requirements.
Some important limits:
• The range index C is 4 < C < 12, Lower indexes being
more difficult to form (because of the danger of
surface cracking). Higher indexes tending to tangle
(knot) often enough to require individual packing.
• The recommended range of active turns is 3 < Na d 15.
• To maintain linearity when a spring is about to close, it is
necessary to avoid the gradual touching of coils.
• The characteristic of the force-deflection for the helical
coil spring is nearly linear.
• The spring force is not reproducible for very small
deflections and near closure, nonlinear behaviour begins
as the number of active turns diminishes as coils begin to
touch.
• The designer confines (limits) the springs operating point
to the central 75% of the curve between no load F=0
and closure (end) F=FS

Thus, the maximum operating force

 ξ =1/7=0.143 .=0.15
fractional overrun , ξ,
Exercise 10-21: A static service music wire helical compression spring is
needed to support a 20-lbf load after being compressed 2 in.
o The solid height of the spring cannot exceed 1½ in.
o The free length must not exceed 4 in.
o The static factor of safety must equal or exceed 1.2.
o For robust linearity use a fractional overrun to closure ξ of 0.15.

There are two springs to be designed.

Start with a wire diameter of 0.075 in.
(a) The spring must operate over a ¾ -in rod. A 0.050-in diametral
clearance allowance should be adequate to avoid interference
between the rod and the spring due to out-of-round coils.Design the
spring.
(b) The spring must operate in a 1-in-diameter hole. A 0.050-in diametral
clearance allowance should be adequate to avoid interference
between the spring and the hole due to swelling of the spring
diameter as the spring is compressed and out-of-round coils. Design
Given
Fmax = 20 lbf ymax = 2 in, k = 20 lbf/2 in. = 10 lbf/in.
ns = 1.2.
 = 0.15
d = 0.075 in.
Fs = (1 + ξ)Fmax = (1+0.15)20 lbf
= 23 lbf
Over a rod
D= drod+d+allow
= ¾ +0.075 + 0.050
D = 0.875
C = D/d
= 0.875/0.075
=11.67
• OD = D+d = 0.875+0.075 = 0.95 in.
• ID = D-d = 0.875 -0.075 = 0.8 in.
• Na= (Gd4ymax)/(8D3Fmax) = (11.75*106 *0.0754* 2)/(8*0.8753 *20)
• = 6.93
• Assuming square and ground ends
• Nt = Na+2 = 6.93+2 = 8.93
• Ls = dNt = 0.075*8.93 =0.67 in
• Lo = 1.15*y+Ls = 1.15*2+0.67 = 2.97 in.
• Lo(crit)= 2.63 D/ = 2.63*0.875/0.5= 4.6 in
• From table 10-4
• A = 201,000
• m= 0.145
• Sut = A/dm = 201,000/0.0750.145
= 292625.5 lbf/in.2
• Ssy =0.45* 292625.5 lbf/in.2
• =131681.4 lbf/in.2
• KB = ( 4C+2)/(4C-3)
• = (4*11.67+2)/(4*11.67-3)
• s = KB*8(1+)*Fmax*D/(d3)
• = (1.114*8(1+0.15)*20*0.875)/(0.0753)
• =135,125 lbf/in.2
• ns =Ssy/ s = 131681.4 /135125 =0.974
• Fom = −(relative material cost)π2d2Nt D/4
• =-(2.6) π2 *0.0752*8.93*0.875/4
• = -0.282
• See Table A-28 for for the next d, d= 0.080
• Do the same for this
4.4.8 Fatigue Loading of Helical Compression Springs

• Helical springs are never used as both

compression and extension springs. This is
because they are usually assembled with a
preload so that the working load is additional.
Thus, the spring application fall under the
condition of fluctuating loads.
Springs are almost always subject to fatigue loading.
In many instances the number of cycles of required life may be small, say, several
thousand eg. Padlock spring
But the valve spring of an automotive engine must sustain millions of cycles of
operation without failure; so it must be designed for infinite life.
To improve the fatigue strength of dynamically loaded springs, shot peening can be
used.
It can increase the torsional fatigue strength by 20 percent or more.
Shot size is about 1 /64 in, so spring coil wire diameter and pitch must allow for
complete coverage of the spring surface.
The best data on the torsional endurance limits of spring steels are those reported by
Zimmerli.
He discovered the surprising fact that size, material, and tensile strength have no
effect on the endurance limits (infinite life only) of spring steels in sizes under
3 /8 in (10 mm).
While the corresponding endurance strength components for infinite life
approximated with
Unpeened: Ssa = 35 kpsi (241 MPa) Ssm = 55 kpsi (379 Mpa)
Peened: Ssa = 57.5 kpsi (398 MPa) Ssm = 77.5 kpsi (534 MPa)
And the torsional modulus of rupture Ssu is
Exercise10–26 A : Compression spring is needed to fit over a
0.5-in diameter rod. To allow for some clearance, the inside
diameter of the spring is to be 0.6 in. To ensure a
reasonable coil, use a spring index of 10.
The spring is to be used in a machine by compressing it from
a free length of 5 in through a stroke of 3 in to its solid
length. The spring should have squared and ground ends,
unpeened, and is to be made from cold-drawn wire.
(a) Determine a suitable wire diameter.
(b) Determine a suitable total number of coils.
(c) Determine the spring constant.
(d) Determine the static factor of safety when compressed to
solid length.
(e) Determine the fatigue factor of safety when repeatedly
cycled from free length to solid length.
Solution
Given: ID = 0.6 in, C = 10, L0 = 5 in, Ls = 5 - 3 = 2 in, sq.
& grd ends, unpeened, HD A227 wire.
(a) With ID = D - d = 0.6 in and C = D/d = 10 , 10 d - d
= 0.6, d = 0.0667 in.
and D = 0.667 in.
(b) Table 10-1: Ls = dNt = 2 in, Nt = 2/0.0667 = 30 coils.
(C ) Table 10-1: Na = Nt - 2 = 30 - 2 = 28 coils
Table 10-5: G = 11.5 Mpsi
k=d4G/8D3Na= 0.06674*11.5*106
(d) Table 10-4: A = 140 kpsi.inm, m = 0.190
• Eq. (10-14): Sut = A/dm = 234.2 kpsi
Table 10-6: Ssy = 0.45 Sut = 0.45 (234.2) = 105.4 kpsi
• Fs = kys = 3.424(3) = 10.27 lbf
• KB = (4C+2)/(4C-3) =1.135
• s=KB8FsD/(πd3) = 66.72 kpsi
• ns=Ssy/s =105.4/66.72 = 1.58
(e) a = m = 0.5 s = 0.5(66.72) = 33.36 kpsi, r = a / m =
1. Using the Gerber fatigue failure criterion with
Zimmerli data,
• Eq. (10-30): Ssu = 0.67 Sut = 0.67(234.2) = 156.9 kpsi
• The Gerber ordinate intercept for the Zimmerli data
is
4.4.7 Critical Frequency of Helical Springs

• When helical springs are used in applications

requiring a rapid reciprocating motion, the designer
must be certain that the physical dimensions of the
spring are not such as to create a natural vibratory
frequency close to the frequency of the applied
force; otherwise resonance may occur, resulting in
damaging stresses.

• The governing equation for the translational

vibration of a spring is the wave equation:
where k = spring rate g = acceleration due to gravity
l = length of spring W = weight of spring
x = coordinate along length of spring u = motion of any particle at
distance x