Introduction To Cell Biology

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Introduction to Cell and

Molecular Biology
Molecular Biology
• ... is the study of biology at a molecular level.
• The field overlaps with other areas of biology, particularly genetics and
biochemistry
• Molecular biology concerns itself with understanding the interactions
between the various systems of a cell, including the interrelationship of
DNA, RNA and protein synthesis and learning how these interactions are
regulated.

Biochemistry Function Genetics

Proteins Genes

Molecular Biology
Schematic relationship between biochemistry, genetics and molecular biology

2
Molecular Biology

• study of the cellular, biochemical and molecular aspects of cell


structure and function

• includes the study of the techniques used to arrive at the


understanding of cell structure and function and the concepts
and techniques of genetic engineering and their application to
agriculture, medicine, industry and environment

• introduce us to the new tools used by scientists to unravel and


understand mechanisms involved in many pathologies like cancer,
degenerative diseases, diabetes, mental disorders and the like
Importance of Cell
and Molecular Biology
Cell biology: revolutionized medicine,
agriculture & pharmaceutical industry.

Molecular biology – provides us tools to


explore the wonder/mystery of life.

Biotechnology -involves the use of living


organisms and their products to
modify and improve human health
and the human environment.
Organisms

Organ systems

Organs

Tissues

Cells

Nuclei, mitochondria, chloroplasts


Supramolecular
assemblies Multienzyme complexes, ribosomes, chromosomes, membranes,
structural elements, contractile system
Macromolecules
Proteins Nucleic acids Polysaccharides
MW: 104-109 D

Monomer units 20 Amino acids Nucleotides Sugars Phospholipids


(MW: 104-109 D)
Small precursor molecules Five aromatic Glucose Palmitate, other
(MW: 100-250 D) bases, ribose Fatty acids,
Glycerol, Choline

Environmental precursors CO2, H2O, N2


(MW: 18-44 D)

HIERARCHY OF BIOLOGICAL
STRUCTURE
Components Involve in Molecular Biology
All Life depends on 3 critical molecules

DNA

RNA

Protein
Inside a Living Cell
Life alphabet
4 letters English alphabet
A, T, G, C 26 letters

Structure
Static

Function Function
Dynamic Dynamic
What is a Cell?

• A cell is chemical system that is


able to maintain its structure and
reproduce.
• All living things are composed of
cells
• In multicellular organisms, many
are specialized to perform specific
functions
• Cells are always very small
• Cells are the basic units of living
organisms
– Building blocks.
The Needs of Cell

• Selective isolation from


environment(plasma membrane)
• Energy (ATP)
• Instructions (DNA)
• Machinery to carry out instructions
and
regulate processes (proteins)
• Compartmentalization of
incompatible
or specialized activities (organelles)
Cell Size Varies

• Human nerve:
up to 1 meter
• n Human red blood cell:
~8 um
• n Bacteria: ~1 um
Why Must Cells Be Small?

•Smaller cells have


more total surface
area which makes it
easier for gases,
nutients, etc to enter a
cell.
•Upper limits on cell
size are set by
diffusion distance.
Molecules must
diffuse through the
The Discovery of Cells
Because of their small size, cells
can only be observed with the
aid of a microscope, an
instruments that provides a
magnified image of a tiny object.
By the mid-1600s, a handful of
pioneering scientists had used
their handmade microscopes to
uncover a world that would In Micrographia, Robert Hooke had applied the word cell to
biological structures such as this piece of cork, but it was not
never have been revealed to the until the 19th century that scientists considered cells the
universal basis of life.
naked eye.
Historical origins of cell & molecular biology

 first description of cells in the 17th century


 study of cell chemistry and physiology in the
18th & 19th century
 biochemistry began to influence cell biology in
the beginning of the 20th century; genetics
became established as a new field of study
Continuation of the History
 Since the late 1950s and early
1960s, molecular biologists have
learned to
 Characterize, isolate, and
manipulate the molecular
components of cells and
organisms, which are:
1. DNA, the storage of genetic
information
2. RNA
3. Proteins, the major structural and
enzymatic type of molecule in cells.
Molecular Biology – A Journey
 Microscopic biology began in
Robert Hooke
1665
 Robert Hooke (1635-1703)
discovered organisms are
made up of cells.
 Leeuwenhoek was the first
to examine a drop of pond
water under the microscope
and, to his amazement,
observe the teeming
microscopic “animalcules”
that darted back and forth
before his eyes.
Molecular Biology – A Journey
• Matthias Schleiden
(1804-1881) and
Theodor Schwann
(1810-1882) further
expanded the study
Theodor Schwann
of cells in 1830s

Matthias Schleiden
The Cell Theory
• All organisms are constructed of and
by cells.
• All cells arise from preexisting cells.
• Cells are the functional units of life.
All biochemical processes are carried
out by cells.
• Groups of cells can be organized and
function as multicellular organisms
• Cells of multicellular organisms can
become specialized in form and
function to carry out subprocesses of
the multicellular organism.
Modern cell theory
1. All living things are made up of cells.
2. Cells are the basic units of structure and
function in living things.
3. Living things come only from other living
cells.
4. The cell contains hereditary information
which is passed on from cell during cell
division

3-18
Modern cell theory

5. All cells are basically the same in chemical


composition.

6. All energy flow (metabolism & biochemistry)


of life occurs within the cells.

3-19
Major events in the history of Molecular Biology
1800 - 1870

 1865 Gregor Mendel discover the


basic rules of heredity of garden pea.
 An individual organism has two
alternative heredity units for a given
trait (dominant trait vs. recessive Mendel: The Father
of Genetics
trait)

 1869 Johann Friedrich Miescher


discovered DNA and named it nuclein.

Johann Miescher
Major events in the history of Molecular Biology 1880
- 1900

• 1881 Edward Zacharias showed chromosomes are


composed of nuclein.

• 1899 Richard Altmann renamed nuclein to nucleic acid.

• By 1900, chemical structures of all 20 amino acids had


been identified
Major events in the history of Molecular Biology 1900-
1911
 1902 - Emil Hermann Fischer wins
Nobel prize: showed amino acids are Emil
linked and form proteins Fischer

 1911 – Thomas Hunt Morgan


discovers genes on chromosomes
are the discrete units of heredity
Thomas
 1911 Pheobus Aaron Theodore Morgan
Lerene discovers RNA
Major events in the history of Molecular Biology 1940
- 1950

 1941 – George Beadle and


Edward Tatum identify
that genes make proteins
George Edward
Beadle Tatum
 1950 – Edwin Chargaff find
Cytosine complements
Guanine and Adenine
complements Thymine Edwin Chargaff
Major events in the history of Molecular Biology 1950
- 1952

 1950s – Mahlon Bush


Hoagland first to isolate
tRNA

 1952 – Alfred Hershey


and Martha Chase make Mahlon Hoagland
genes from DNA

Experiment
Major events in the history of Molecular Biology 1952
- 1960

 1952-1953 James D.
Watson and Francis H. C.
Crick deduced the double
helical structure of DNA
James Watson and
Francis Crick
 1956 George Emil Palade
showed the site of enzymes
manufacturing in the
cytoplasm is made on RNA
organelles called ribosomes.

George Emil Palade


Major events in the history of Molecular Biology
1970

 1970 Howard Temin and David


Baltimore independently isolate
the first restriction enzyme

• This means that: DNA can be cut


into reproducible pieces at
specific site by restriction enzymes
called endonuclease
• The pieces can be linked to
bacterial vectors and introduced
into bacterial hosts.
• This is called (gene cloning or
recombinant DNA technology)
Major events in the history of Molecular Biology 1986 -
1995
 1986 Leroy Hood: Developed
automated sequencing
mechanism

 1986 Human Genome


Initiative announced Leroy Hood

 1995 Moderate-resolution
maps of chromosomes 3, 11,
12, and 22 were published
 These maps provide the
locations of “markers” on
each chromosome to make
locating genes easier
Major events in the history of Molecular Biology 1995-
1996

 1995 John Craig Venter: First


bacterial genomes sequenced

 1995 Automated fluorescent


sequencing instruments and
robotic operations
John Craig Venter
 1996 First eukaryotic genome-
yeast-sequenced
Major events in the history of Molecular Biology

 Molecular Biology 1997-1999


 1999 First human chromosome (number 22)
sequenced

 Molecular Biology 2000-2001


• 2001 International Human
Genome Sequencing published
the first draft of the sequence
of the human genome
Major events in the history of Molecular Biology 2003-
Present

 April 2003 Human Genome


Project Completed
 Mouse genome is sequenced.

 April 2004 Rat genome


sequenced.

 Next-generation sequencing –
genomes being sequenced by
the dozen
BASIC PROPERTIES OF CELLS
• Cells are highly complex and
organized.
• Cell possess a genetic program and
the means to use it.
• Cell are capable of producing more
of themselves.
• Cells acquire and utilize energy.
• Cells carry out a variety of chemical
reactions.
• Cells engage in numerous
mechanical activities.
• Cells are able to respond to stimuli.
• Cells are capable of self-regulation.
Highly Complex and Organized

• Organized at both the


molecular and cellular
levels.

• Take in substances from


the environment and
organize them in
complex ways.

• Specific cell structures


(organelles) carry out
particular functions. All other characteristics of life emerge from an
organism’s complex organization.
Possess A Genetic Program And The
Means To Use It.

• Organisms are built


according to information
encoded in a collection of
genes.

• Genes are storage of


information.
Cell Are Capable Of Producing More Of Themselves.

• All species have the


ability to reproduce
– Not essential to
survival of individual
but is essential for
continuation of a
species

Living organisms are able to form new (daughter)


organisms and
new generations
with the help of
the hereditary
molecule DNA
Acquire and Utilize Energy

• Use energy in a process


called metabolism
– Sum of all chemical
processes
• Require energy to
maintain their molecular
and cellular organization, Organisms take in energy and
grow and reproduce transform it to do many kinds of
work.
Carry Out A Variety of Chemical
Reactions
• Cells are capable of hundreds
of different chemical
transformation.

• All chemical changes that


take place in cells require
enzymes.
Engage in Numerous Mechanical Activities

• Mechanical activities were based


on dynamic, and mechanical
changes in cell initiated in the
shape of "motor" proteins (require
constant energy to keep working):
– Material moved from place to
place
– Structures assembled and
disassembled
– Cells move from place to place
Respond to Stimuli

• Respond to stimuli in the


external environment
• Detect and respond to
changes in light, heat,
sound and chemical and
mechanical contact
This plant traps the
• Coordinates it’s responses dragonfly when the hair
cell on the modified
leaves is stimulated.
(closure of the trap)
Capable of Self-Regulation

Cell’s regulatory mechanisms


becomes evident when they
break down. e.g. failure of a cell
to correct mistake when it
duplicates its DNA may result to
debilitating mutation or
breakdown in a cell’s growth-
control safeguard can transform
the cell into a cancer cell with
the capability of destroying the
entire organism.
Cancer arises when
cells aren't getting the right
signals to stop replicating or die
when they should.
Categories of Cells

• Prokaryotes
– Bacteria
(archaebacteria
and eubacteria)
• Eukaryotes
– Protist, Fungi,
Plants and
Animals
Prokaryotic

• Do not have structures


surrounded by
membranes
• Few internal structures
• One-celled organisms,
Bacteria
Prokaryotic Cells

Prokaryotic cells lack a membrane-bound


nucleus.
-genetic material is present in the
nucleoid

Two types of prokaryotes:


-archaea
-bacteria
Prokaryotic Cells

Prokaryotic cells possess


-genetic material in the nucleoid
-cytoplasm
-plasma membrane
-cell wall
-ribosomes
-no membrane-bound
organelles
Prokaryotic Cells

Prokaryotic cell walls


-protect the cell and maintain cell shape

Bacterial cell walls


-may be composed of peptidoglycan
-may be Gram positive or Gram negative

Archaean cell walls lack peptidoglycan.


Eukaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic cells
-possess a membrane-bound
nucleus
-are more complex than
prokaryotic cells
-compartmentalize many
cellular functions within
organelles and the
endomembrane system
-possess a cytoskeleton for
support and to maintain
cellular structure
CELL STRUCTURE

A generalized cell contains the plasma


membrane, the cytoplasm, and the nucleus
Structure of Plasma Membrane
Compose of phospholipid
bilayers with embedded
proteins.

The outer plasma


membrane
– isolates cell contents
– controls what gets
in and out of the cell
– receives signals

Plant cells have a cell


wall in addition to
the plasma membrane.
3-48 3-
48
Structure of Cytoplasm
– Cytoplasm – fluid area
inside outer plasma
membrane and
outside DNA region
– Membrane bound
organelles (synthesis
of substances)
• Ribosomes make
proteins
Structure of the Nucleus
Chromatin: DNA and
proteins
Nucleolus: Chromatin and
ribosomal subunits
Nuclear envelope: Double
membrane with pores
Nucleoplasm: semifluid
medium inside the
nucleus.
Plasma Membrane

• Barrier for cell


contents
• Double phospholipid
layer
– Hydrophilic heads
– Hydrophobic tails
• Also contains protein,
cholesterol, and
glycoproteins
Cellular Projections

• Not found in all cells


• Used for movement
– Cilia moves materials across the cell
surface
– Flagellum propels the cell
Plasma Membrane Specializations

• Microvilli
– Finger-like
projections that
increase surface
area for
absorption

Figure 3.3
Plasma Membrane
Specializations

• Membrane
junctions
– Tight
junctions
– Desmosomes
– Gap junctions

Figure 3.3
Cytoplasm

• Material outside the nucleus and


inside the plasma membrane
– Cytosol
• Fluid that suspends other elements
– Organelles
• Metabolic machinery of the cell
– Inclusions
• Non-functioning units
Cytoplasmic Organelles

• Ribosomes
– Made of protein and RNA
– Sites of protein synthesis
– Found at two locations
• Free in the cytoplasm
• Attached to rough
endoplasmic reticulum
Cytoplasmic Organelles
• Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
– Fluid-filled tubules for carrying
substances
– Two types of ER
• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
– Studded with ribosomes
– Site where building
materials of cellular
membrane are formed
• Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
– Functions in cholesterol
synthesis and breakdown,
fat metabolism, and
detoxification of drugs
Cytoplasmic Organelles

• Golgi apparatus
– Modifies and packages
proteins
– Produces different types of
packages
• Secretory vesicles
• Cell membrane components
• Lysosomes
Cytoplasmic Organelles
• Lysosomes
– Contain enzymes that digest non-
usable materials within the cell
• Peroxisomes
– Membranous sacs of oxidase
enzymes
• Detoxify harmful substances
• Break down free radicals
(highly reactive chemicals)
– Replicate by pinching in half
Cytoplasmic Organelles
• Mitochondria
– “Powerhouses” of the cell
– Change shape continuously
– Carry out reactions where
oxygen is used to break
down food
– Provides ATP for cellular
energy
Vacuoles
• Membrane-bound sacs
for storage, digestion,
and waste removal
• Contains water solution
• Help plants maintain
shape
Chloroplast
• Usually found in plant
cells
• Contains green
chlorophyll
• Where photosynthesis
takes place
Cytoplasmic Organelles

• Cytoskeleton
– Network of protein
structures that
extend throughout
the cytoplasm
– Provides the cell with
an internal
framework

Figure 3.7a
Cytoplasmic Organelles

• Cytoskeleton
– Three different types
• Microfilaments
• Intermediate
filaments
• Microtubules

Figure 3.7b–d
The Nucleus

• Control center of the


cell
– Contains genetic
material (DNA)
• Three regions
– Nuclear membrane
– Nucleolus
– Chromatin

Figure 3.1b
Nuclear Membrane
• Barrier of nucleus
• Consists of a double
phospholipid membrane
• Contain nuclear pores
that allow for exchange
of material with the rest
of the cell
Nucleoli

• Nucleus contains one or more


nucleoli
• Sites of ribosome production
– Ribosomes then migrate to the
cytoplasm through nuclear pores
Chromatin

• Composed of DNA and protein


• Scattered throughout the
nucleus
• Chromatin condenses to form
chromosomes when the cell
divides
Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes
PROPERTY Procaryotes Eucaryotes
Nucleus • Absent • Present
Cell Diameter • 1 um • 10 - 100 um
Cytoskeleton • Absent • Present
Organelles • Absent • Present
DNA content (bp) • 1x10E6 to 5x10E6 • 1.5x10E7 to
Chromosomes • Single circular 5x10E9
DNA molecule • Multiple linear
DNA molecules
Cells as Experimental Models

• Several kinds of cells and organisms are


commonly used as experimental models
to study various aspects of cell and
molecular biology. The features of these
cells make them particularly
advantageous as experimental models.
– E.g. E. coli, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Dictyostelium
discoideum, Drosophila melanogaster, Mice
E. coli
. The most thoroughly studied species of
bacteria is E. coli, which has long been the
favored organism for investigation of the basic
mechanisms of molecular genetics
. Most of our present concepts of molecular
biology—including our understanding of DNA
replication, the genetic code, gene
expression, and protein synthesis—derive
from studies of this humble bacterium.
• E. coli has been especially useful to molecular
biologists because of both its relative simplicity
and the ease with which it can be propagated
and studied in the laboratory.
• The genome of E. coli, for example, consists of
approximately 4.6 million base pairs and
encodes about 4000 different proteins.
• The small size of the E. coli genome provides
obvious advantages for genetic analysis, and
the sequence of the entire E. coli genome has
been determined.
Yeast
• Although bacteria have been an invaluable model
for studies of many conserved properties of cells,
they obviously cannot be used to study aspects of
cell structure and function that are unique to
eukaryotes.
• The simplest eukaryotes, have a number of
experimental advantages similar to those of E. coli.
Consequently, yeasts have provided a crucial model
for studies of many fundamental aspects of
eukaryotic cell biology.
• Saccharomyces cerevisiae, consists of 12
million base pairs of DNA and contains about
6000 genes. Although the yeast genome is
approximately three times larger than that
of E. coli, it is far more manageable than the
genomes of more complex eukaryotes, such as
humans.
• The yeast cell exhibits the typical features of
eukaryotic cells eventhough its cell is simple.
Fruit Fly
• Drosophila melanogaster has been a crucial model
organism in developmental biology. This organism
can be easily maintained and bred in the
laboratory.
• It has a short reproductive cycle of about 2 weeks
that makes it a very useful organism for genetic
experiments.
• Laid the fundamental concepts of genetics—such
as the relationship between genes and
chromosomes
Mice
• Recently in molecular biology, it enabled the
production of transgenic mice, in which specific
mutant genes have been introduced into the
mouse germ line.
• The suitability of the mouse as a model for human
development is illustrated by the fact that
mutations in homologous genes result in similar
developmental defects in both species. (e.g.
Piebaldism)
• It serves as a model for human development
Cell Studies for Science Advancement
• E. Coli Plasmids Can Be Engineered for Use as Cloning Vectors

The plasmids most commonly used in recombinant DNA technology


replicate in E. coli.Generally, these plasmids have been engineered to
optimize their use as vectors in DNA cloning. For instance, to simplify
working with plasmids, their length is reduced; many plasmid vectors
are only ≈3kb in length, which is much shorter than in naturally
occurring E. coli plasmids. (The circumference of plasmids usually is
referred to as their “length,” even though plasmids are almost always
circular DNA molecules.) Most plasmid vectors contain little more
than the essential nucleotide sequences required for their use in
DNA cloning: a replication origin, a drug-resistance gene, and a
region in which exogenous DNA fragments can be inserted
Cloning a DNA Fragment in a Plasmid Vector

A DNA fragment of a few base pairs up to ≈20 kb can be inserted into a plasmidvector.
When such a recombinant plasmid transforms an E. coli cell, all the antibiotic-resistant
progeny cells that arise from the initial transformed cell will contain plasmids with the
same inserted sequence of DNA. The inserted DNA is replicated along with the rest of
the plasmid DNA and segregates to daughter cells as the colony grows. In this way, the
initial fragment of DNA is replicated in the colony of cells into a large number of
identical copies. Since all the cells in a colony arise from a single transformed parental
cell, they constitute a clone of cells. The initial fragment of DNA inserted into the
parental plasmid is referred to as cloned DNA, since it can be isolated from the clone of
cells.
Antibacterial Activity of Medicinal Plants Against Pathogens causing Complicated
Urinary Tract Infections
Anjana Sharma,* S. Chandraker, V. K. Patel, and Padmini Ramteke

• Abstract

Seventeen Indian folklore medicinal plants were investigated to


evaluate antibacterial activity of aqueous, ethanol and acetone extracts
against 66 multidrug resistant isolates of major urinary tract pathogens
(Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and
Enterococcus faecalis) by disc diffusion method. Ethanol extract
of Zingiber officinale andPunica granatum showed strong antibacterial
activity against Escherichia coli. Ethanol extracts of Terminalia
chebula and Ocimum sanctum exhibited antibacterial activity against
Klebsiella pneumoniae. Ethanol extract of Cinnamomum cassia showed
maximum antibacterial activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa while
ethanol extract of Azadirachta indica and Ocimum sanctum exhibited
antibacterial activity against Enterococcus faecalis. The results support
the folkloric use of these plants in the treatment of urinary tract
infections by the tribals of Mahakoshal region of central India.
Correlates of Sleep and Waking in Drosophila melanogaster
BODHISATTWA CHAKRABORTY SUBHANGKAR NANDY

Abstract

Drosophila exhibits a circadian rest-activity cycle, but it is not known whether fly
rest constitutes sleep or is mere inactivity. It is shown here that, like mammalian
sleep, rest in Drosophila is characterized by an increased arousal threshold and is
homeostatically regulated independently of the circadian clock. As in mammals,
rest is abundant in young flies, is reduced in older flies, and is modulated by
stimulants and hypnotics. Several molecular markers modulated by sleep and
waking in mammals are modulated by rest and activity in Drosophila, including
cytochrome oxidase C, the endoplasmic reticulum chaperone protein BiP, and
enzymes implicated in the catabolism of monoamines. Flies lacking one such
enzyme, arylalkylamineN-acetyltransferase, show increased rest after rest
deprivation. These results implicate the catabolism of monoamines in the
regulation of sleep and waking in the fly and suggest that Drosophila may serve
as a model system for the genetic dissection of sleep.
ANXIOLYTIC ACTIVITY OF ALOE VERA (L.)
BURM.F TESTED IN RODENTS
NUZHAT SULTANA AND RAHILA NAJAM

• Abstract
• Aloe vera was evaluated for CNS activities in mice and
different behavioral activities for anxiety and depression were
tested on Exploratory activity, Open field test, Swimming –
induced Depression test, Stationary Rod, Cage Crossing and
Inclined Plane test. Aloe vera was administered orally in both
sexes of mice and was found to cause significant depression in
general as well as exploratory behavioral profiles. The results
revealed that Aloe vera caused reduction of Exploratory and
Locomotor activities along with the significant decrease in
traction in an inclined plane test. The results suggest that Aloe
vera may have anxiolytic potential with sedative action.
Micropropagation Studies of a Medicinal Plant Aristalochia indica
Theriappan, P., Saranya Devi, K. and Dhasarathan, P.

• Abstract:
The development of in vitro propagation of plants holds
tremendous potential for the production of high-quality plant-
based medicines. Aristalochia indica is used in traditional
remedy. In the present study, attempts have been made to
develop a simple, reliable and reproducible protocol for
micropropagation from different explants of Aristalochia indica.
Shoot tip and nodal segments showed elongation without
multiplication when either NAA or KIN was used in MS medium.
Shoot multiplication was obtained when cytokinins like BAP was
used. BAP alone also induced multiple shoots. The regenerated
individual shoots were rooted in MS medium containing 1 mg
dm-3 indole-3-butyric acid (IBA). Regenerated plants grew well
Tools for Biology
• In all experimental science, research in cell biology
depends on the laboratory methods that can be
used to study cell structure and function. Many
important advances in understanding cells have
directly followed the development of new
methods that have opened novel avenues of
investigation.
e.g. light microscopy, electron microscope,
Subcellular fractionation, animal cell and plant cell
culture
Light Microscope
• It is used to
visualized cells and
subcellular
structures that
helps determine the
intracellular
localization of
specific molecules.
Electron Microscopy
• It has a resolution
that is
approximately a
hundredfold
greater than that
of light microscopy.
This is used to
analyze details of
cell structure,
Subcellular Fractionation

• The organelles of
eukaryotic cells can
be isolated for
biochemical analysis
by differential
centrifugation.
Animal Cells in Culture
• The propagation of
animal cells in
culture has allowed
studies of the
mechanisms that
control cell growth
and differentiation.
Culture of Plant Cells

• Cultured plant
cells can
differentiate to
form specialized
cell types and,
in some cases
can regenerate
entire plants.
• References:
Cooper,G. (1997). The cell a molecular approach.
p 3-37
Karp, G. (2002).Cell and molecular biology.4th ed.
John Wiley and Sons Inc.

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