Computer Networks

What is a Network?
• A collection of independent entities that are arranged in such
a manner as to exchange data, information or resources.

• A collection of computers linked together using transmission

media for the purpose of communication and resource sharing.
 Network Devices
There are many network devices but the following are the most
common ones;
• Router
• Network hub
• Switch
• Bridges
• Modems
• Proxy Servers
 Devices
1. Modems
Modem means modulator demodulator.
It is a device which converts a
computer’s digital signal(i.e modulates it)
into an analogue signal for transmission
over an existing telephone line.
It also does the reverse process, in that
it converts analogue signals from a
telephone line into digital signals
(demodulates) to enable the computer to
process the data.
 2. Network Hub
• This is a device which can have a number
of computers or other devices connected
to it in a network. It has up to 16 ports
• Its function is to take any data received
via one of the ports and send out this data
to all the ports.
• Each computer or device will then receive
the data whether it is relevant to them or
not.
 3. Switches
• Sometimes known as switched hubs.
• A switch has up to 24 ports. It learns
which device is connected to which port
• It is sends data to only the device or
computer that is meant to receive it and
not any other.
• It uses MAC addresses to uniquely
identify different devices on the network
• A switch is more efficient than a hub.
 4. Bridges
 These devices connect one LAN to another LAN that
uses the same PROTOCOL (the rules that govern the format
and the way data is transmitted)
 The bridge examines each message and determines
if the message was sent to someone within the
same LAN or to someone on a different LAN
 Workstation addresses are not specific to their
location so messages are sent out to every work
station on the network
Segment A Segment B
 5.Routers
• These are devices that connect LANs together
within one organisation and also connect them
to the internet.
• This is usually within a large organisation which
has more than one LAN which needs to be
linked together to share files or communicate.
• Since every computer on the same network
has the same first part of an IP address
(INTERNET PROTOCOL), it is able to send data
to appropriate switch which then uses the mac
address to deliver the data packet to the
correct computer
Using a Router
to determine
which route to
send the
Message.
 Http proxy servers
• This is a special type of server that acts as a
buffer(temporary storage place) between a
WAN(usually the internet) and LAN.
• If a user requests a certain internet page, the
server passes this request to the internet(WAN).
Once retrieved, the page is then passed on to the
user who requested it.
• This page is then saved on the server and anyone
requesting the same will find it faster to retrieve
it.
 Data Communication
• It is the process of transmitting data signal from one point to
another through the network.

• It is the movement of data by telecommunication systems.

 TERMS USED IN DATA
COMMUNICATION
• Data signal.
• Signal modulation and demodulation.
• Multiplexing.
• Band width.
• Base band.
• Broad band transmission.
• Attenuation.
1. DATA SIGNAL
Computers communicate by transferring data signals between themselves.
Refers to a voltage level in the circuit which represents the flow of data.
There are two types of data signals:
Analog signal: data made up of continuous varying wave form similar to voice or sound wave.
Digital signal: data made up non-continuous discrete signal.

2. SIGNAL MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

Process of converting data signals to a form that is suitable for transmission over a transmission medium.
Modulation: converting digital data signals into analog data signals.
Demodulation: converting digital data by superimposing it on analog carrier signal which can be transmitted over
analog telephone lines.

3. MULTIPLEXING
Process of sending multiple data signals over the same medium i.e. a wire conductor can be made to carry several
data signals either simultaneously or at different times.
Demultiplexing is the process of separating the multiplexed signals at the receiving end.
The different data signals are made to have different frequencies on the cable hence they do not interfere with one
another.
The different frequencies cause what is called different logical channels in the medium.

4. BAND WIDTH
The maximum amount of data that a transmission medium can carry at any one time. For example, a certain cable
may have a bandwidth of 100 Mbps (Mega bits per second).
5. BASE BAND SIGNAL
A signal that is generated and applied to the transmission medium directly without
modulation.
The signal takes the form of voltages of different magnitudes applied to the medium.

6. BROAD BAND TRANSMISSION

This is where an analog signal is send over the transmission medium using a particular
frequency.
Several data signals can be send simultaneously through the same medium but at
different frequencies.

7. ATTENUATION
This is the loss of signal strength (decrease in magnitude and energy) as a signal
progressively moves along a transmission medium.
If the signal is not boosted, it will totally be lost along the way and may never reach
the destination.
This condition is usually corrected by placing signal amplifiers also called repeater
stations along the medium at appropriate distances in order to receive the weak signal,
clean it, amplify it then retransmit it.
 Types of Computer
Networks

• PAN (Personal Area Network)

• WAN (Wide Area Network)

• LAN (Local Area Network)

• MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

 Networks: LANs
LAN LANs are networks
stands that are found where
for: computers within a
building need to
LOCAL communicate.
AREA
NETWORK
They are Small and Local!
 Networks: LANs
What hardware do you need for a LAN network?
 File Server : Runs software,
stores files.
 Terminals : Workstations that
give network access.
 Print Server : Queues up all print
jobs from users in network.
 Cables (wire/optic) : Sends
data.
 The above are connected to
hubs/switches then to
routers/modems which then
connect the LAN to the internet.
 Networks: WANs
WAN WANs are networks
stands that are found where
for: computers in
different areas or
WIDE countries need to
AREA communicate.
NETWORK
They are long range and not local!
 Networks: WANs
What extra hardware do you need for a WAN
network?  Modems : To connect up to a
telephone system (instead of
cable);router.

How a modem
works…
Networks: Ad/Disad
Some advantages of a network
are:
 Resources (Hardware and Software)
can be shared.
 Allows more effective communication
between users e.g. via e-mail.
 Networks are cheaper than “stand-
alone PCs.”
 Information held on the network can be
accessed by all users with authorised
access.
 Networks: Ad/Disad
Some disadvantages of a network are:
 The set-up and maintenance costs can be
expensive.
 A fault with the network server can cause
difficulties with the organisation.
 Networks need security measures to restrict
access to users.
 WANs are vulnerable to hackers and viruses.
 Development of printer queues
 Slower access to external networks such as the
internet
 Wireless LANs (WLANS)
• Are similar to LANs but there are no wires
or cables.
• They provide wireless communication over
fairly short distances using radio or
infrared signals.
• They make use of Access Points (APs).
• APs use either spread spectrum
technology (which is a wideband radio
frequency with a range of about 30 to 50
metres) or infrared (with a frequency of
about 1 to 2 metres – easily blocked, short
range and of a limited use).
 Advantages of WLAN
• Since cables are not used, there is more
safety
• All computers can access the same services
and resources within the network. Such
resources include printers, scanners etc.
• Users do not have to sit in the same
position, they can move with their laptops.
• It is easy to add a new computer and
devices to the network.
 Disadvantages
• Security is an issue since anyone can join your
network unless it is secured.
• The data transfer rate is slower than a wired LAN.
• There may be signal interference which may
affect the network reception.
 WiFi
This is any system where it is possible to
connect to a network or to a single computer
through wireless communications.
Examples:
• Within a WLAN
• Using PDAs and other handheld devices
• Laptop which are WiFi enabled
• Peripheral devices such as printers, keyboard
and mouse which can interface with the
single computer when fitted with WiFi
adapters.
 WiFi Hotspot
What is a WiFi hotspot?
• These are places where you can access WiFi
free or paid. They are usually found in public
places such as airports, hotels.
• War driving is driving around in a car looking
for unsecured WiFi hotspots.
 Bluetooth
• Bluetooth is an example of WPAN
technology.
• With Bluetooth in devices such as
Laptops, Mobile phones, media player
and printer, one can form a network
within a range of 10metres.
• This is a mini LAN because one can
transfer photographs from a digital
camera to a mobile phone or the transfer
of phone details to a computer.
 Wide Area
Network(WAN)
• This is basically formed by a number of LANs
being connected together through either a
router or a modem.

• An ISP is required to connect the network to

the internet and to communicate via the
network system.
Modes of Data Communication

• Simplex Mode
• Half Duplex
• Full Duplex
 Simplex Mode
With Simplex Mode, there is ;
o Communication is only in one direction.
o They re only meant to send or receive messages.
•
• Example
• Radio broadcast – the listener cannot communicate back through the radio
receiver.
• Television broadcast.
• Transmission from a computer to a line printer.
 Half Duplex
2. HALF DUPLEX
Communication takes place in both directions but one direction
at a time.
Two interconnected devices exchange data alternately where the
devices switch between send and receive modes after each
transmission.

Example
Walkie talkies
Fax machines.
Modems.
 Full Duplex
3. FULL DUPLEX
Occurs in both directions simultaneously.

Example:
Telephone system, a person can talk without waiting for the other
to finish.
Computers can send and receive data on a network.
 Purposes and Limitations
of Networking
PURPOSE OF NETWORKING
• Resource sharing
• Remote communication.
• Distributed processing facilities.
• Cost effectiveness.
• Reliability.
 Limitations of Networking
LIMITATIONS OF NETWORKING
• Security issues.
• High initial cost.
• Moral and cultural effects.
• Spread of terrorism and drug trafficking.
• Over-reliance on networks.
 Data Communication media
A pathway used for carrying data and information from one point to another.

The communication medium dictates the type of signals that will be used to
transmit a message.

Transmission media is the physical path (bounded) and non physical path
(unbounded) between the transmitter and the receiver.

The communication media/channels/pathways can be divided into two:

• Communication using cables (bounded media).

• Wireless communications (unbounded media).
 Bounded Media
Communication signals are transmitted from the source to the
destination through a restricted pathway such as a cable.
Any radiation from the guided medium is regarded as signal loss.

The most common types of bounded transmission media are:

• Twisted pair cables.

• Coaxial cables.
• Fibre optic cables.
 Twisted Pair Cables
Made up of two solid copper wire strands wound around each
other in a double helix manner to reduce the development of an
electromagnetic field around the two wires as they transmit data.
Mostly used to transmit both voice and data signals.

The two common types of twisted pair cables are:

o The unshielded twisted pair (UTP)
o Shielded twisted pair (STP)
Twisted Pair Cables
Advantages of Twisted Pair Cables
• They can support high data rates (bandwidth) of up to 100
Mbps.
• Telephone systems use UTP which is present in most buildings
hence it is easier to set up a network media because
connection is already available.
• Installation equipment is cheap and readily available.
• It is cheap because of mass production for telephone use.
 Disadvantages of Twisted Pair Cables
• Suffers high attenuation – a repeater is needed to amplify the
signal.
• It is sensitive to electromagnetic interference and
eavesdropping (tapping into communication channels to get
information).
• It has low data transmission rates as compared to other cables.
 Coaxial Cables
• Specially wrapped and insulated cables that are able to transmit
data at very high rate.
• They consist of central copper wire covered with a dielectric
material (insulator).
• The dielectric material is then surrounded by a hollow mesh
conductor which is covered by a shield making the cable more
resistant to electromagnetic interference than the twisted pair
cable.
• The signal is transmitted by inner copper wire and is electrically
shielded by the other copper sleeve.
• The braid (mesh conductor) is made up of copper or aluminum
and serves as the ground for the carrier wire.
Coaxial Cables
 Advantages of Coaxial Cables
• They are very stable even under high load.
• Have a large bandwidth – up to 1Gbps compared to twisted
pair.
• Can carry voice, data and video signal simultaneously.
• More resistant to radio and electromagnetic interference than
twisted pair cables.
• Extensively used for longer distance telephone lines and as
cables for closed circuit TV.
• Many are packaged in bundles that can handle 15000
telephone calls simultaneously.
• Have a higher immunity to noise distortion and data loss.
 Disadvantages of Coaxial Cables

• Thick coaxial cables are hard to work with.

• They are relatively expensive to buy and to install as
compared to twisted pairs especially for longer distance
transmission.
• They are vulnerable to tapping.
• Attenuation for long distance transmission.
 Optical Fibre Cables
• Specially wrapped and insulated cables that are able to transmit
data at very high rate.
• They consist of central copper wire covered with a dielectric
material (insulator).
• The dielectric material is then surrounded by a hollow mesh
conductor which is covered by a shield making the cable more
resistant to electromagnetic interference than the twisted pair
cable.
• The signal is transmitted by inner copper wire and is electrically
shielded by the other copper sleeve.
• The braid (mesh conductor) is made up of copper or aluminum
and serves as the ground for the carrier wire.
Optical Fibre Cables
 Advantages of Optical Fibre Cables
• Offer high quality transmission of signals.
• Light weight – a normal glass fibre is the size of a human hair.
• Can transmit voice, data and video signals simultaneously.
• Have a large bandwidth (up to 1Gbps).
• Low cross talk.
• Immune to interference and eavesdropping.
• More resistant to radio and electromagnetic interference.
• Long distance can be covered because they have low attenuation.
• Can be used in hazardous places – high flammable, because the
do not generate electrical signals.
• Can withstand extreme temperatures – up to 1000 0C.
 Disadvantages of Optical Fibre Cables
• Connectivity devices and the media are expensive.
• Installation is difficult because the cable needs careful
handling.
• Relatively complex to configure.
• A broken cable is difficult and expensive to repair.
• Expensive for shorter distances.
• Prone to water seepage and freezing.
 Wireless Communication Media
WIRELESS COMMUNICATION (UNBOUNDED MEDIA)
Type of media used to transmit data from one point to another without using
physical connections.

A transmitting antenna and receiver aerial are used to facilitate the communication.

Examples of wireless transmission media:

• Microwaves.
• Satellite.
• Radio waves.
• Infrared transmission.
• Bluetooth technology.
The transmission media above use different frequencies of the electromagnetic
spectrum as shown below.
 NETWORK SOFTWARE
Can be classified into two main groups namely:
• Network operating systems.
• Network protocols.
 NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEMS
Designed to optimize the networked computers ability to respond
to service requests.

Servers run on a network operating system.

Functions of Network Operating Systems

o Provides access to network resources e.g. printers.

o Enables nodes on the NT to communicate with each other more efficiently.

o Supports interprocess communication i.e. enables the various processes on the

NT to communicate with one another.
o Respond to requests from application programs running on the network.

o Supporting NT services like NT card drivers and protocols.

o Implementing NT security features.

 Examples of Network Operating Systems

• Windows NT/2000/2003
• Novel Netware.
 NETWORK PROTOCOLS

• These are sets of rules and procedures that govern

communication between two different devices or people.

• In computer networking, protocols refer to the rules and

technical procedures that govern communication between
different computers.
 NETWORK PROTOCOLS
Layer Function

Application layer User applications run here and generate

requests for data transmission or open
received information.

Presentation layer Adds formatting, display and encryption

information to the data being sent.

Session layer Sets up data transmission sessions between

two communicating devices.

Transport layer Manages data transfer over the network to

ensure reliability.

Network layer Address information is added to the packet

and routing to destination.

Data link layer Adds error checking information and

prepares data for going onto the physical
connection.
Physical layer The data packets are finally transmitted via
the network card through the transmission
media in form of bits.
 Application Layer Protocol

Application protocols work at the highest layer of the OSI model.

They provide services to application programs.

Examples of application protocols:

• An e-mail program that enables composing or reading of e-mail
messages.

• Simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP) – An Internet protocol for

transferring e-mails.

• File Transfer Protocol (FTP) – for file transfer.

• Apple talk and apple share – Apple computers networking protocol suit.
 Transport Layer Protocol

Ensure that data is passed between computers more reliably.

Examples of transport protocols

• Transmission control protocol (TCP) - Responsible for delivery of sequenced
data over the network.

• Sequential Packet Exchange (SPX) - Part of the Novell’s internet work packet
exchange/sequential packet exchange (IPX/SPX) for sequenced data.

• NetBEUI: a local area network protocol for Microsoft and IBM networks that
establishes communication sessions between computers.

• Apple transaction protocol: (ATP): Apple computer’s communication session

and data transport protocol.
 Network Layer Protocol

Provide link services.

They handle addressing and routing information, error checking and
retransmission of requests.

Examples of network layer protocols

• Internet protocol (IP) – it does packet forwarding and routing.

• Internetwork packets exchange: Netwares protocol for packet

forwarding and routing.

• NetBEUI: provides data transport services, Netbius sessions and

applications.
 NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

Topology:
It is the physical arrangement of computers on a network.
Refers to the way in which computers and other devices have been arranged or
how data is passed from one computer to another in the network.

It is the way in which the points or stations of a network interlink (interact

together).

It determines the data paths that may be followed or used between points in the
network.

Network topology can be viewed in two ways:

• logical topology.
• Physical topology.
 A. LOGICAL TOPOLOGY

Also called signal topology.

Deals with the way data passes from one device to the next on the
Network.

Examples of logical topology;

i) Ethernet topology.
ii) token ring topology.
 Examples of Logical Topology

I) ETHERNET TOPOLOGY
All computers listen to the network media and can only send data
when none of the others is sending.

II) TOKEN RING TOPOLOGY

A special package for data called a token goes around the
network and only the computer whose address is on the data held
in the token will take up the token to read the data and then
release the token.
The token can then be captured by another computer which needs
to transmit data.
 B. PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY

Refers to the physical layout or arrangement of components on

the network.

Examples of physical topology

i) Star topology.
ii) Bus topology.
iii) Ring topology.
iv) Mesh topology.
v) Tree/hierarchical topology.
 Network Topologies
The Ring Network:
Computers are
connected
together to form a
ring shape so that
none of them is
more important
than any of the
others.
 Network Topologies
The Ring Network:
Advantages: Disadvantages:
 They are cheap to  If there are a lot of
expand. users on the network, it
 The data flows around could slow down as all
the network in one the data is sent along a
direction so it is fast single line.

 There is no reliance on  If one computer in the

a central computer. ring stops working, the
whole network stops.
 Network Topologies
The Bus (or line) Network:
Computers are
connected like bus
stops on a main road.
None of them is more
important than any of
the others; has
terminators to
prevent signal
bounce.
 Network Topologies
The Bus (Line) Network:
Advantages: Disadvantages:
 It is cheap as it uses the  With a lot of users, the
least amount of cable. network will be slow as
 More computers can be data has to travel
added without through the same
disruption. central cable.

 If one device or  Failure of the central

computer fails, it does cable will stop the
not affect the rest of the network from working.
network  It is difficult to isolate a
fault in the network
 Network Topologies
The Star Network:
Computers are
connected like a
star to a central
computer such as
a mainframe.
This is also called
the “host”
computer.
 Network Topologies
The Star Network:
Advantages: Disadvantages:
 If a cable fails, it will  It is more expensive as
only affect one it uses the most
workstation. cabling.
 More computers can be  Failure of the central
added without computer will stop the
disruption. network from working.
 It is easy to identify
problems on the
network
 MESH TOPOLOGY
• Most common type used in WAN, where there are many paths between different
locations.
• Devices are connected with many redundant interconnections between the nodes.
• Every node has a connection to every other node in the NT, making possible for
direct communication with every computer hence every computer dictates its
priorities.

Advantages of mesh topology

• The network is reliable and effective due to direct relationship between the
computers.
• Point to point connections optimize throughput of data.
• The NT can still operate even when a node breaks down or a connection breaks.

Disadvantages of mesh topology

• It is expensive on cable due to redundant links.
• Administration of the network is difficult because of the peer to peer connections.
 TREE TOPOLOGY
o A hybrid topology.
o Groups of star – configured networks are connected to a linear bus backbone.
o It can also be derived out of breeding a combination of other networks.
Advantages of tree topology
• Failure of one or more nodes does not affect the whole network.
• Failure of a single branch does not bring the whole network down.

Disadvantages of tree topology

• Communication path can sometimes become quite long.
• Installation can become costly and complex.
 NETWORK SECURITY
o In networking, there are several ways of enforcing security, one of them is share
level and the other is user level security.
a) Share level security
o A simple network security used in peer to peer networks.
o The user can decide which resources to give for sharing.
o Most desktop O.S. such as Windows 9x provide such kind of security.

b) User-level utility
• Used on server based networks.
• A network administrator assigns accounts to users.
• Each user is provided with a unique name and password which he/she can use to
access network resources.
 APPLICATION AREAS OF ICT
ICT is widely…