Control and instrumentation

•Though bridge control of the Diesel Engines

were available for longtime, monitoring and
control equipments together with various
alarms need work seamlessly even when the
equipments being monitored which supply
power to the controls have failed.
•This was made possible with the
developments of monitoring and control
equipments.
 Control and instrumentation
•Instrumentation used for remote
information gathering purposes converts
the measured parameters to electrical
signal which may be used to indicate the
measured value in a suitable scale,
provide the data to a data logger, provide
signal for process control or for an alarm
 Control and instrumentation
The range of parameters to be measured include
• Temperature
• Pressure
• Levels of liquid
• Rotational speed
• Flow
• Electrical parameters
• Chemical qualities
• Torque/Power output. . etc.
 Measurement system

Physical Transducer Signal Measurement Application

quantities conditioning data

Voltage, Device used Amplification, Multimeter, Supervision,

Current, to measure Filter, Sampling Oscilloscope, Industrial
Force, one Freq. analyser, process,
Torque, parameter in Computer, other control
Flux, terms of Control system
Temp, another.
Supervisory
Pressure
Eg. Measure Control And
temperature Data
by the Acquisition.
change in SCADA
resistance
 Purpose?
• Open loop.
– Information to the user
– Information to other systems
– Supervision
• Closed loop
– Feedback
 How?
• Direct measurement
– Purpose made equipment using a physical
phenomenon that directly links the measured
quantity to the measurement signal
• Estimation
– Indirect calculation of the desired quantity
from other known (but not necessarily
measured) physical quantities. E.g. if the
motor voltage and the motor speed is
measured, the flux can be estimated
 Temperature measurement

• Liquid in glass, Mercury in steel and vapor

pressure types are common

• Three main types using electrical

properties are

a. Resistance thermometer
b. Thermocouple
c. Thermistor.
 Resistance thermometer
• It is a precision resistor with a known
temperature coefficient of resistance.
The majority are PT -100 with 100 ohm at
0’C increasing by 0.385 ohm/’C up to 100.C.

These changes are read off on a calibrated

instrument as electrical signal
 Temperature with thermo couple
Tx T0

•A thermo couple is the conection point, preferably welded or

soldered, of two different metals, e.g. constantan and copper.
• Two thermo couples, connected as above , measure the
temperature difference (Tx – T0)

•To measure absolute temperature, one of the temeratures Tx or

T0 must be known, either measured or being kept at a known
reference temperature in an oven or in a vessel with ice and
water
 Thermo couples
• Cu-Constantan T <400o
• Fe-Constantan J <700o (1200o)
• NiCr- Constantan E <900o (1000o)
• NiCr- NiAl K <1370o
• Pt-PtRh S <1000o (1760o)
• PtRh- PtRh R <1800o
 Thermistor
This has many advantages over both above
thermometers
Normally this is in the form of a small bead
of semi-conducting material from which
the electrical signals are taken to a
terminal for measurement or controls as
reqd.
Infrared Temperature measurements

This takes the form of a relatively

inexpensive, readily available
temperature reading instrument often
with laser guidance. The taking of
readings is very simple although care
must be taken in the interpretation of
results. Due to their low cost these are
normally found on most vessels as
standard item
 Thermal imaging

• These are expensive specialist

instruments although they may
be used by untrained personnel
and results are generally simple
to interpret. Due to their high cost
it is normal to have a single unit
available for several vessels.
• The unit is used rather like a
video camera and the results
viewed in real-time as an image
displayed on the rear of the
instrument.

image of a hot bus bar

 Pressures
Most of the transducers operate on the principle of
a motion proportional to the applied force.
Common are bourdon tube direct read,
potentiometer type and the strain gauge type
In the bourdon tube potentiometer type the
motion is used to move the slide of
potentiometer where as the strain gauge uses a
conducting material whose resistance changes
when subjected to pressure.
There are two types of strain gauges bonded –
which is cemented to a diaphragm and un-
bonded- which is free but get the strain from a
diaphragm.
 Liquid levels
Where precise levels are not reqd. level switches serve the
purpose where it monitors to a level.

A simple means of measuring the oil tank level is a “bubbler”

type where very small dia tubes are lead to the bottom of
the tank and air pressure at 1 bar is admitted in the tube ,
Depending on the tank liquid level there shall be variation of
the blead air and remaining pressure in the tube is
monitored in a calibrated gauge for the direct conversion to
level.
Capacitive type sensors are used where level in the tank is
measured by the change in capacitance in a circuit of two
concentric elements and the tank fluid being the dielectric
medium.
Strain gauges in in vented tanks, ultrasound multifunction
tank gauges, radar gauges etc are common on ships.
 Flow measurement

• Flow of oil is usually measured by letting the fluid through a meter in

which it drives a rotor with known discharge/revolution. The rate of
revolution is analogous to fuel flow.
• Flow nozzles and orifice plate in conjunction with differential
pressure transducer types are used where other parameters like
temperature make operation difficult
• Electronic mass flow meters shall provide precise readings where
applications are critical
 Torsion meters
• Angular Displacement
• Torsion meters are used for the measurement of power transferred
through a propulsion shaft.
• Principle

•
A torque of value T is applied to a shaft of fixed length L and radius
r. An angle of twist θ is generated and is dependent of the modulus
of torsional rigidity G and given by
• T/r = Gθ/L
• The modulus of rigidity, the radius and the length of the shaft are all
fixed thus the torque on the shaft is proportional to the angle of
twist
 Typical system
Two AC generators are mounted so that
they are driven by the main shaft and
area at set distance apart L. A sinusoidal
waveform is produced. One of the
generators is adjusted so that at
minimum torque the generated
waveforms are 180' out of phase. The
outputs from the two generators are then
added and the resultant voltage is used
as the measurement of torque
As the torque is applied to the shaft so
the twist causes the waveforms to shift in
phase. When the two waveforms are now
added an output ac current is produced
which may be amplified and rectified to
give an output voltage proportional to the
torque applied to the shaft.
Torductor torque transducer
 Torque

• The surface of a shaft under

torque will experience
compression and tension
• Displacement sensors:
– Optical through toothed
wheels
– Magnetical through
variable coupling
• Strain gauges or
magnetostrictive strips ca
be used.
 Torductor
• Consists of 3 identical rings with poles mounted on them. The poles are
with coils of alternately reversing windings. The middle ring is displaced
half the pole pitch relative to outer rings. The middle ring is the primary
and excited with 50-60 Hz supply and the other 2 connected in series
• The TORDUCTOR torque transducer works on the, so-called, magneto-
elastic principle, i.e. the fact that the magnetic flux pattern in a
magnetic material, in this case the propeller shaft, changes
direction when subjected to a mechanical stress. This principle
offers a number of good
advantages.
The transducer, with the shape of a ring, fits around the shaft with a gap of
approximately 1.5mm
• does not make any contact with the shaft. Other than the shaft itself,
there are no moving parts.
• The basic system provides outputs for indication or recording of shaft
torque, speed and power
and consists of 3 main parts:
• A TORDUCTOR torque ring-transducer with speed sensor, adapted to
the size of your shaft.
• A power supply (PRUN) this unit should be installed in the vicinity of the
shaft and the ring sensor

A central processing unit (SPUN) with analogue outputs for shaft
torque, speed and power, suitable for driving indicating or recording
instruments or an integrated alarm and monitoring system. The SPUN unit
is normally mounted in the control room.
Torductor
 Rogowski coil for current
• Ideally linear
(no saturable
elements)
• Cannot
measure DC-
current
 Voltage

• Differential measurement
• Indirect via current
 Force
• Strain gauge + spring
principle
When a force is
applied, the
conductors become
longer and more tiny,
the resistance
increases, R -> R+ΔR
 Bridge
Strain gauges in the different resistor positions

R+ΔR R-ΔR

V V

R-ΔR R+ΔR
 Speed : Tacho

• Tachometer
generators
– A DC machine
– No load – long lifetime
(> 20000 h)
– Linearity error < 0.5%
– Ripple < 5%
 Speed; Magnetic pick up
• speed pick-up
Magnetic pickups / proximity switches
 CONTROL ACTIONS
• Two step control action
This can be defined as 'the action of a controller whose output
changes from one state to another due to a variation in its
input' One example of this control is that of a float operated
filling v/v say for a cistern. In normal condition the output of the
float is nil and no water passes through the valve, should the
water level drop the float detects this and operates the valve to
change to its second state which is open and water flows.
When the level re-establishes then the float controls the valve
to return to its primary state which is closed. In this way the
float is controlling the water level by changing the valve
between two different states. A more realistic system is shown
below.
The actions of controllers having
variable output
 Proportional control action
• This; where the change in output signal from a controller is proportional to the change in input
signal
• The control can be summed up in the following;
• Output = Constant x Deviation
• Output - this is the output from the controller and goes to the control element i.e. the piece of
equipment that actually alters the process.
Constant- This is the 'Gain' of the controller, as the output varies with the deviation, the amount
it varies can be altered.
• Say if the deviation changes by one unit the output changes by one unit, hence the gain is one.
If the output varied by two for the same one change in deviation then the gain would be two.
Similarly if the change in output was one half a unit for a one unit change in input then the gain
would be half. Another way used to describe Gain is 'Proportional band', here a gain of one is
described as a proportional band (Pb)of 100%. For a gain of two the Pb is 50%, and for a gain of
a half the Pb is 200%, hence it can be seen that the magnitude of the Pb is opposite to the gain.
Deviation- This is the difference between the set point of the controller and the measured value.
If the set point was one unit and the measured value was two units the deviation would be one
unit.
• Deviation = Set point - Measured value
• The important think to remember is that the narrower the Proportional band the higher the gain
and hence the higher the output varies for a change in deviation, this has the effect of making
the controller control the process quicker by operating the controlling element more for smaller
variations measured value. This has the negative effect as will be seen of making the system
unstable
 OFFSET
• For a proportional controller to work there must be a deviation, if the deviation is
zero then the controller output to the controlling element is zero. For the example
of the tank and filling v/v obviously this is not possible, with the water constantly
flowing out of the manual outlet v/v then the filling valve ( or controlling element )
must always be some degree open. If the level is at the level of the set point
then the output is nil, the filling v/v is shut and the level drops, deviation occurs
and the filling v/v opens. with this it can be seen that the system is not stable;
what would happen in reality is the level would change (say the level was low
and was now rising) until it reached a point close to the set point where the
deviation multiplied by the gain would give an output signal to the filling v/v such
that the flow of water in to the tank equaled the flow of water out of the tank.
• This deviation is called 'offset'
• Therefore a proportional only controller when in equilibrium must have offset
The amount of offset will be determined by the Gain, for the tank system if the
gain is high the deviation can be small for a larger output
• The offset will increase for increased loads on the system i.e. if the outlet v/v on
the example where to be opened further obviously the filling v/v would have to
be opened further, and hence the deviation ( offset ) to give the required output
would have to be greater.
• For the system above all the control would be positive as the filling v/v would
only be open if the level was low and hence the offset would always be positive,
when the level rose above the set point, say caused by Lags leading to
Overshoots or the filling v/v leaking slightly the deviation would be negative and
the output zero.
 Proportional action and instability
(Hunting)
• As the gain increases so the output increases for smaller
and smaller changes in deviation, eventually the response
starts to look similar to that of a two step controller with
the control valve flying from full open to full shut with the
slightest deviation from the set point. This would be o.k. if
the system was devoid of all Lags, with lags however,
particularly between the controller and controlling
element, there is a tendency for 'over shoot'.
• This can occur with reduced gain when the process lags
are increased, for systems with a very large lags even
small changes in gain can seriously effect the stability of a
system and especially its ability to resist step ( or rapid )
load changes.
• For smaller values of gain the system can be set up to
have minimum of hunt and be self stabilizing .
 Split range control
(negative and positive offset)
• A system could be designed to control both the outlet valves and inlet valves
(this is what is seen on the feed water system level control with the spill and
filling being controlled from the one controller) ; here the controller would be
set up so that when the level is at the set point its output is mid range ( say
for a controller operating in the 3 to 15 psi range this would be 9 psi)
• The control valves would be set up so that one, say the filling v/v would go
from close at 9.5 psi to open at 15 psi, and the spill v/v would go from close
at 8.5 psi to open at 3 psi. The 1 psi in the middle is called the 'Deadband'
and is there to ensure both v/vs are not open at the same time.( The v/v
acting to open with increasing input signal is called 'Direct Acting' and the
v/v closing with increasing pressure is called 'Reverse Acting')
 Integral action (and the removal of offset )
• Integral action is defined as the action of a controller
whose output signal changes at a rate proportional to the
input (deviation from the set point) signal.
• What this means is that if a controller has a constant
deviation then the integral action controller will increase
its output continuously until it reaches maximum (often
referred to as 'Saturation')
If the deviation is zero the integral action controller is
zero
If the deviation is small the rate the controller output
increases by is small
If the deviation is great then the integral action controller
will rapidly increase its output.
• Integral action is included in proportional controllers
to remove the inherent offset of the proportional
action, the offset is the deviation the integral action
requires to alter the output
 Integral action time
• The amount of integral action, or how fast the integral action increases or
decreases the output for one unit of deviation is expressed as the time
taken to repeat the proportional action after a stepped change in input.
• Rate of increase of output = Deviation x Integral action time
• What this means is say the load changes in the simple filling system
example by the manual v/v being opened and the level suddenly
dropping by a foot, the proportional action will see this load change and
give a stepped change in output i.e. if the foot drop in water level equals
a change in input signal to the controller of one unit away from the set
point, the controller will give a stepped change in output equating to the
gain (which is say two ) times the deviation ( one unit) which equals a
change in output of two units.
• Whilst all this has been going on the integral part of the controller has
seen the deviation and has decided to increase the rate of output by an
amount equal to the deviation multiplied by the integral action time. The
time taken for the output to increase by a further two units ( remembering
that this was how much the proportional action changed the output) is
the integral action time and is measured in seconds.
• The shorter the integral action time ( less seconds ) the more rapidly the
integral part of the controller will increase the output; The longer the
integral action time the slower the integral action will increase the output.
 Integral action

A common way of expressing integral action is in 'Repeats per minute',

integral action time is seconds per repeat, hence if the IAT is 10
( seconds per repeat ), this would equate to 10/60 minutes per repeat,
or more simply 1/6 mins. The repeats per minute is therefore 6.
Integral action and stability
The introduction of integral action into a controller introduces an extra
time lag, remembering the diagram showing that the integral action will
take time to increase the output to a stepped load change, whereas
the proportional action will give a stepped change. Lags introduce
instability, hence it would more difficult to find settings which give a
stable output.
Integral action is always used with proportional action
 Derivative action
• The definition of this is the action of a controller whose output is proportional to
the rate of change of input.
• That is to say for the filling system if the level was falling slowly the output of the
controller would be small. If the level was flying down at a great rate of knots
then the derivative controller would give a high output. It is quite obvious that the
derivative action takes no account of the deviation from the set point but is only
interested in the rate of change of deviation and hence;
• Derivative action by itself cannot be used for control.
• The purpose of adding derivative action to a controller is to increase the
responses that deviation is removes as quickly as possible. That is to say if the
level in our filling system is falling the proportional action will increase the filling
at a the same rate, however as with seen, if there is a lag in the system
particularly between the controller and controlling element; then there is a
possibility of instability and a hunt.
• If we where at the point where the water level was just starting to fall less rapidly
but not at the point where it was actually starting to rise, all the proportional and
integral action see is a large deviation and so keep the water v/v wide open, the
derivative action, however, sees this slowing down of the drop in water level, its
output is dependent on the rate of change and hence reduces, and so the output
from the controller reduces.
• The introduction of derivative action introduces a stabilizing effect into a
control system
 Derivative action time

• Output = Derivative
action x rate of change of
input
• Derivative action
[coefficient]- This is
described as the time the
proportional action takes
to repeat the derivative
action after a ramped ( or
constant rate of change)
input. The units are
seconds
Boiler Water level Control
A regulated supply of water must exist for a boiler
generating steam. With the system in balance without
leaks the flow of water to the boiler will be equal to the
flow of steam. When there is a change in steam demand
then the flow of water will have to be changed.
One Element

The water level is measured using a suitable device.

This level is sent to the controller as a measured value.
The controller compares this measured value against a
set point. Any deviation from this set point caused a
demand signal to be generated.
Two Element
A single element controller is considered suitable for only the smallest of
boilers. The reason for this is the effect of stepped load changes
Should there be a sudden demand for increase steam flow there will be a
requirement to increase the firing rate. The increased firing rate increases
the ebullition or bubble formation in the water and the volume of water
increases or swells. This will be seen as an immediate increase in the
water level.
For a single term controller the tendency will be to close the feed supply
valve. However, the increased firing rate will generate more steam flow
from the boiler and in reality an increase in water flow would be required
For a stepped load increase there will be tendency for the water
level to rise due to swell as described. The Water level controller
will give a reduced demand signal. The steam flow transmitter
will detect an increase in steam flow and send an increase
demand signal via a conditioner which adjusts this signal to suit
the system. These two signals pass through a Summator. The
resultant effect will prevent any immediate sharp change in the
demand signal to the feed flow control valve.
Three Element
Variations in feed pressure will vary the true feed flow rate to
valve demand signal. For improved control an additional feed
water flow element may be added. This is the case only
when the cost and complexity can be justified due to
improved plant efficiency and critical water level control.
Proportional
This; where the change in output signal from a controller is
proportional to the change in input signal

Integral (Time)
Integral action is defined as the action of a controller whose
output signal changes at a rate proportional to the input
(deviation from the set point) signal.
Derivative (Rate of change)
The definition of this is the action of a controller whose
output is proportional to the rate of change of input
 Valve Positioners
Valve positioners are used on controlling valves where accurate and rapid
control is required without error or hysterises.
•Precise positioning,
•can cope with large variations in forces acting on plug
•Rapid positioning
•Removes friction effects of gland
•Removes effects of large distances between vale and postioner
•Eliminates hysterises
A valve positioner consists of a very high
gain amplifier- this may be pneumatic,
electro pneumatic etc, and a feed back
link which detects the actual position of
the valve. movement is for the valve to
close. The input pressure from the
controller to the bellows falls. The flapper
moves away from the nozzle and the
pressure after the orifice falls. The
pressure to the diaphragm falls and the
valve begins to close. The feed back arm
moves up rotating the cam clockwise.
This raises the beam increasing back
pressure in the nozzle until equilibrium is
again achieved. The change over cock
allows the signal from the controller to be
placed directly on the diaphragm