Lecture - 03

Telecommunication System
ICT-4103
By-
Dr. Jesmin Akhter
Professor
Institute of Information Technology
Jahangirnagar University
SIGNALS CONVEY INTELLIGENCE
BASIC CONCEPTS OF ELECTRICITY
FOR COMMUNICATIONS
Early Sources of Electrical Current
 Figure 2.1a shows the standard graphic notation for a cell;

 Figure 2.1b shows the graphic symbol for a battery made up of
several cells.
 A drawing of a battery made up of four cells is illustrated in Figure
2.1c. A dry cell stores chemical energy from which, when its positive
electrode is connected through some resistive device to the negative
electrode, a current will flow.
 A battery of cells was the simple power source for a telegraph circuit.
The Electrical Telegraph: An Early Form
of Long-Distance Communications
 Let’s connect a battery terminal (or electrode) with a length of copper
wire looping it back to the other electrode.
 A buzzer or other sound-generating device is inserted into that loop at
the farthest end of the wire before looping back;
 The loop has a certain resistance, which is a function of its length and
the diameter of the wire. The longer we make the loop, the greater the
resistance. As the length increases (the resistance increases), the current
in the loop decreases.
 The maximum loop length can be increased by using wire with a greater
diameter. It can be increased still further by using electrical repeaters
placed near the maximum length point.
 Another relay technique involved a human operator. At the far end of the
loop an operator copied the message and retransmitted it down the next
leg of the circuit.
Conveying Intelligence over the Electrical
Telegraph.
 At the near end, which we may call the transmitting end, there is an
electrical switch, which we will call a key. The key consists of two
electrical contacts, which, when pressed together, make contact,
thereby closing the circuit and permitting current to flow. The key is
spring-loaded, which keeps it normally in the open position (no
current flow).
 To convey intelligence, the written word, a code was developed by
Morse, consisting of three elements: a dot, where the key was held
down for a very short period of time; a dash, where the key was held
down for a longer period of time; and a space, where the key was left
in the “up” position and no current flowed.
 By adjusting the period of time of spaces(signal durations), the
receiving operator could distinguish the separation of characters (A, B,
C,..., Z) and separation of words, where the space interval was longer.
Telegraph.
Table 2.1 shows the landline and international versions of the Morse code. By land-line, we mean a code used to communicate
over land by means of wire conductors.
One famous piece of Morse code is "... --- ...", a distress signal for "SOS" that stands for "Save Our Souls".
Telegraph.
 A more practical telegraph system is illustrated in Figure 2.3.
 The figure has just one metallic wire connecting the west station to the
east station. The second wire is replaced with ground. The earth is a
good conductor, and so we use earth, called ground, as the second
conductor (or wire). Such a telegraph system is called single-wire
ground return.
 In this case, when both keys are closed, a DC (direct current) circuit is
traced from a battery in the west station through the key and relay at
that point to the line wire, and from there it is traced through the relay
and key at the east station and back through the earth (ground) to the
battery.
 The relays at each end, in turn, control the local circuits, which include
a separate battery and a sounder (e.g., buzzer or other electric sounding
device). Opening and closing the key at one end, while the key at the
other end is closed, causes both sounders to operate accordingly.
 A relay is a switch that is controlled electrically
What Is Frequency?
 Frequency can be defined as “the number of complete cycles of sinusoidal variation per
unit time.”
 The time unit we will use is the second.
 we plot y = sin x, where x is expressed in radians, y is a “sine wave”
What Is Frequency?
 Figure 2.5 shows two sine waves;
 the left side illustrates a lower frequency, and the right side shows a higher frequency.
 The amplitude, measured in this case as voltage, is the excursion, up or down, at any
singular point. In this case it is 6 volts. If it is in the “down” direction, it would be −6
volts, if “up” direction it would be +6 volts.
What Is Frequency?
 The unit of measurement of frequency used to be cycles per second (prior to 1963) and now the
unit of measure is Hz named for Heinrich Hertz, a German physicist credited with the discovery of
radio waves.
 On the FM band in the Phoenix, we may tune to a classical music station, KBAQ, at 89.5 MHz
(89,500,000 Hz). These are radio frequencies.
 kilohertz (kHz), megahertz (MHz), and gigahertz (GHz) are used for Hz × 1000, Hz × 1,000,000,
and Hz × 1,000,000,000. Thus 38.71 GHz is 38.710,000,000 Hz.
 Wavelength is conventionally measured in meters and is represented by the symbol λ.
 Radio waves travel at 186,000 mi/sec in a vacuum, or 3 × 10 8 m/sec.
What Is Frequency?
Introduction to Phase
 An important characteristic of a sound wave is the phase. Phase specifies the location or timing of a point
within a wave cycle of a repetitive waveform.
 Typically, it is the phase difference between sound wave.
 When two sound waves are added, for example, the difference between the phases of the two waves is
important in determining the resulting waveform.
 The phase difference between two sound waves of the same frequency moving past a fixed location is given
by the time difference between the peak positions of wave cycles of the two sounds
 Two sound waves of the same frequency that are perfectly aligned have a phase difference of 0
and are said to be “in phase.”
 Two waves that are in phase add to produce a sound wave with an amplitude equal to the sum of
the amplitudes of the two waves. This process is called “constructive interference.”
 If one of the two sound waves of the same frequency is shifted by one-half cycle relative to the
other, so that one wave is at its maximum amplitude while the other is at its minimum amplitude,
the sound waves are said to be “out of phase.”
 Two waves that are out of phase exactly cancel each other when added together. This principle,
which is used in noise-cancelling headphones, is called “destructive interference.”
 A phase difference is normally expressed in terms of an angle, rather than as a fraction of a wave cycle.
 The phase difference can be described as an angle because the waveform of a pure tone consisting of a
single frequency can be represented with the trigonometric sine function (which is why it is called a
“sine wave”):
y(t) = A sin(2 π f t)
 where y(t) is the waveform, A is the amplitude, f is the frequency (hertz or cycles/second), and t is time
(seconds).
 In this equation the argument of the sine function (2 π f t) is an angle expressed in radians, with
π=3.14159…
 The sine wave is periodic, consisting of wave cycles that repeat over time
 The values of sin(2πft) as a function of time over one full cycle are:
 The locations on a wave cycle can therefore be specified as an angle in either radians or degrees, as well as in
fractions of a cycle. This can be visualized with a rotating wheel and a spoke tracing the sine wave.
Thank You

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Telecommunication System

 Figure 2.1a shows the standard graphic notation for a cell;

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