Water Treatment Processes

ENVR 890 Mark D. Sobsey Spring, 2007

Water Sources and Water Treatment

Drinking water should be essentially free of disease-causing microbes, but often this is not the case.
A large proportion of the worlds population drinks microbially contaminated water, especially in developing countries

Using the best possible source of water for potable water supply and protecting it from microbial and chemical contamination is the goal
In many places an adequate supply of pristine water or water that can be protected from contamination is not available

The burden of providing microbially safe drinking water supplies from contaminated natural waters rests upon water treatment processes
The efficiency of removal or inactivation of enteric microbes and other pathogenic microbes in specific water treatment processes has been determined for some microbes but not others. The ability of water treatment processes and systems to reduce waterborne disease has been determined in epidemiological studies

Summary of Mainline Water Treatment Processes

Storage Disinfection
Physical: UV radiation, heat, membrane filters Chemical: Chlorine, ozone, chlorine dioxide, iodine, other antimicrobial chemicals

Filtration
Rapid granular media Slow sand and other biological filters Membrane filters: micro-, ultra-, nano- and reverse osmosis

Other physical-chemical removal processes

Chemical coagulation, precipitation and complexation Adsorption: e.g., activated carbon, bone char, etc, Ion exchange: synthetic ion exchange resins, zeolites, etc.

Water Treatment Processes: Storage

Reservoirs, aquifers & other systems: store water protect it from contamination Factors influencing microbe reductions (site-specific) detention time temperature microbial activity water quality: particulates, dissolved solids, salinity sunlight sedimentation land use precipitation runoff or infiltration

Water Storage and Microbial Reductions

Microbe levels reduced over time by natural antimicrobial processes and microbial death/die-off Human enteric viruses in surface water reduced 4001,000-fold when stored 6-7 months (The Netherlands) Indicator bacteria reductions were less extensive, probably due to recontamination by waterfowl. Protozoan cyst reductions (log10) by storage were 1.6 for Cryptosporidium and 1.9 for Giardia after about 5 months (The Netherlands; G.J Medema, Ph.D. diss.)
Recent ICR data indicates lower protozoan levels in reservoir or lake sources than in river sources; suggests declines in Giardia & Cryptosporidium by storage

Typical Surface Water Treatment Plant

Chemical Coagulation-Flocculation
Removes suspended particulate and colloidal substances from water, including microorganisms. Coagulation: colloidal destabilization Typically, add alum (aluminum sulfate) or ferric chloride or sulfate to the water with rapid mixing and controlled pH conditions Insoluble aluminum or ferric hydroxide and aluminum or iron hydroxo complexes form These complexes entrap and adsorb suspended particulate and colloidal material.

Coagulation-Flocculation, Continued
Flocculation:

Slow mixing (flocculation) that provides for for a period of time to promote the aggregation and growth of the insoluble particles (flocs). The particles collide, stick together abd grow larger The resulting large floc particles are subsequently removed by gravity sedimentation (or direct filtration) Smaller floc particles are too small to settle and are removed by filtration

 Considerable reductions of enteric microbe concentrations. Reductions In laboratory and pilot scale field studies: >99 percent using alum or ferric salts as coagulants Some studies report much lower removal efficiencies (<90%) Conflicting information may be related to process control coagulant concentration, pH and mixing speed during flocculation. Expected microbe reductions bof 90-99%, if critical process variables are adequately controlled No microbe inactivation by alum or iron coagulation Infectious microbes remain in the chemical floc The floc removed by settling and/or filtration must be properly managed to prevent pathogen exposure. Recycling back through the plant is undesirable Filter backwash must be disinfected/disposed of properly.

Microbe Reductions by Chemical CoagulationFlocculation

Cryptosporidium Removals by Coagulation (Jar Test Studies)

Coagulant

Dose (mg/L)

Oocyst Removal, % (log10)

Alum

5 1
6 5

99.8 (2.7) 87 (0.9)

99.5 (2.3) 97 (1.5)

Iron

Granular Media Filtration

Used to remove suspended particles (turbidity) incl. microbes. Historically, two types of granular media filters: Slow sand filters: uniform bed of sand; low flow rate <0.1 GPM/ft2 biological process: 1-2 cm slime layer (schmutzdecke) Rapid sand filters: 1, 2 or 3 layers of sand/other media; >1 GPM/ft2 physical-chemical process; depth filtration

Diatomaceous earth filters

fossilized skeletons of diatoms (crystalline silicate); powdery deposit; few 10s of micrometers; porous

Slow Sand Filters

Less widely used for large US municipal water supplies Effective; widely used in Europe; small water supplies; developing countries Filter through a 3- to 5-foot deep bed of unstratified sand flow rate ~0.05 gallons per minute per square foot. Biological growth develops in the upper surface of the sand is primarily responsible for particle and microbe removal. Effective without pretreatment of the water by coagulation-flocculation Periodically clean by removing, cleaning and replacing the upper few inches of biologically active sand

Microbial Reductions by Slow Sand Filtration

Effective in removing enteric microbes from water. Virus removals >99% in lab models of slow sand filters.
Up to 4 log10; no infectious viruses recovered from filter effluents

Field studies: naturally occurring enteric viruses removals 97 to >99.8 percent; average 98% overall; Comparable removals of E. coli bacteria. Virus removals=99-99.9%; high bacteria removals (UK study) Parasite removals: Giardia lamblia cysts effectively removed
Expected removals 99%

Roughing Filter Used in developing countries inexpensive low maintenance local materials Remove large solids Remove microbes 1-2 log10 bacterial reduction 90% turbidity reduction

Microbe Reductions by Rapid Granular Media Filters

Ineffective to remove enteric microbes unless preceded by chemical coagulation-flocculation. Preceded chemical coagulation-flocculation & sedimentation Enteric microbe removals of 90->99 % achieved. Field (pilot) studies: rapid sand filtration preceded by iron coagulation-flocculation: virus removal <50% (poor control?). Giardia lamblia: removals not always high; related to turbidity removal; >99% removals reported when optimized. Removal not high unless turbidity is reduced to 0.2 NTU. Lowest removals shortly after filter backwashing Microbes primarily removed in filter by entrapped floc particles. Overall, can achieve 90% microbial removals from water when preceded by chemical coagulation-flocculation.

Microbe Reductions by Chemical Coagulation-Flocculation and Filtration of River Water by Three Rx Plants in The Netherlands
Organisms Plant 1 Plant 2 Plant 3 Log10 Reductions of Microbes Enteric 1.0 1.7 >2 Viruses F+ No data 0.4 1.7 Coliphages Fecal 2.0 >2 0.2 Coliforms Fecal 2.1 >2 0.6 Streptococci Clostridium 0.6 2.1 >2 spores Plant 1 used two stages of iron coagulation-flocculation-sedimentation. Plant 2 used iron coagulation-flocculation-sedimentation and rapid filtration Plant 3 used iron coagulation-flotation-rapid filtration.

Cryptosporidium Removals by Sand Filtration

Reduction Rate (M/hr) Coagulation % (log10)
5 5 6 0.2 No Yes Yes No 65 90 (0.5) (1.0)

Type

Rapid, shallow Rapid, shallow Rapid, deep Slow

99.999 (5.0) 99.8 (2.7)

Cryptosporidium Removal by Coagulation and Direct Filtration

Log10 Reduction of Cryptosporidium 3.1 2.8 2.7 1.5 2.5

Run No.
1 2 3 4 Mean

Turbidity
1.3 1.2 0.7 0.2* 0.85

Raw water turbidity = 0.0 - 5.0 NTU Alum coagulation-flocculation; Anthracite-sand-sand filtration; 5 GPM/ft2 *Suboptimum alum dose Ongerth & Pecoraro. JAWWA, Dec., 1995

Reported Removals of Cryptosporidium Oocysts by Physical-Chemical Water Treatment Processes (Bench, Pilot and Field Studies)
Process Log10 Reduction

Clarification by: Coagulation flocculation-sedimentation or Flotation Rapid Filtration (pre-coagulated) Both Processes Slow Sand Filtration

<1 - 2.6 1.5 - >4.0 <2.5 - >6.6 >3.7

Diatomaceous Earth Filtration

Coagulation + Microfiltration Ultrafiltration

>4.0
>6.0 >6.0

Cryptosporidium Reductions by Coagulation and Filtration Laboratory studies on oocyst removal: - Jar test coagulation with 1 hr. setting = 2.0 - 2.7 log10

- Sand filtration, no coagulant, 10 cm bed depth = 0.45 log10

- Sand filtration, plus coagulation, 10 cm bed depth = 1.0 log10
Gregory et al., 1991. Final Report. Dept. of the Environ., UK

Membrane Filters
More recent development and use in drinking water Microfilters: several tenths of M to M diameter pore size nano- & ultra-filters: retention by molecular weight cutoff Typically 1,000-100,000 MWCO Reverse osmosis filters: pore size small enough to remove dissolved salts; used to desalinate (desalt) water as well as particle removal High >99.99% removal of cellular microbes Virus removals high >9.99% in ultra-, nano- and RO filters Virus removals lower (99%) by microfilters Membrane and membrane seal integrity critical to effective performance

Cryptosporidium Reductions by Membrane Filtration

Log10 Membrane, Pore Size Cryptosporidium Reduction Type A, MF 0.2 m >4.4 B, MF 0.2 m >4.4 C, MF D, UF E, UF 0.1 m 500 KD 300 KD 4.2->4.8 >4.8 >4.8

F, UF

100 KD

>4.4

MF = microfilter filter; UF = ultrafilter Jacangelo et al., JAWWA, Sept., 1995

Adsorbers and Filter-Adsorbers

Adsorbers: Granular activated carbon adsorption
remove dissolved organics poor retention of pathogens, esp. viruses biologically active; develops a biofilm can shed microbes into water

Filter-adsorbers Sand plus granular activated carbon reduces particles and organics biologically active microbial retention is possible

Cryptosporidium Removals by Sand Filtration

Reduction % (log10)
65 90 (0.5) (1.0)

Type Rapid, shallow Rapid, shallow Rapid, deep Slow

Rate (M/hr) 5 5 6 0.2

Coagulation No Yes Yes No

99.999 (5.0) 99.8 (2.7)

Cryptosporidium Reductions by Membrane Filtration

Membrane, Type Pore Size

Log10 Cryptosporidium Reduction

A, MF B, MF C, MF D, UF E, UF

0.2 m 0.2 m 0.1 m 500 KD 300 KD

>4.4 >4.4 4.2->4.8 >4.8 >4.8

F, UF

100 KD

>4.4

MF = microfilter filter; UF = ultrafilter

Jacangelo et al., JAWWA, Sept., 1995

Water Softening and Microbe Reductions

Hard" Water: contains excessive amounts of calcium and magnesium ions
iron and manganese can also contribute to hardness.

Hardness ions are removed by adding lime (CaO) and sometimes soda ash (Na2CO3) to precipitate them as carbonates, hydroxides and oxides. This process, called softening, is basically a type of coagulation-flocculation process. Microbe reductions similar to alum and iron coagulation when pH is <10 Microbe reductions >99.99% possible when pH is >11
microbial inactivation + physical removal

Microbial Reductions by Softening Treatment

Softening with lime only (straight lime softening); moderate high pH
ineffective enteric microbe reductions: about 75%.

Lime-soda ash softening

results in the removal of magnesium as well as calcium hardness at higher pH levels (pH >11) enteric microbe reductions >99%. Lime-soda ash softening at pH 10.4, 10.8 and 11.2 has produced virus reductions of 99.6, 99.9 and 99.993 percent, respectively.

At lower pH levels (pH <11), microbe removal is mainly a physical process

infectious microbes accumulate in the floc particles and the resulting chemical sludge.

At pH levels above 11, enteric microbes are physically removed and infectivity is also destroyed
more rapid and extensive microbe inactivation at higher pH levels.

Disinfection of Microbes in Water:

Conventional Methods used in the Developed World
Historically, the essential barrier to prevention and control of waterborne microbial transmission and waterborne disease. Free chlorine: HOCl (hypochlorous) acid and OCl- (hypochlorite ion)
HOCl at lower pH and OCl- at higher pH; HOCl a more potent germicide than OCl strong oxidant and relatively stable in water (provides a disinfectant residual)

Chloramines: mostly NH3Cl: weak oxidant; provides a stable residual ozone, O3 , strong oxidant; provides no residual (too volatile and reactive) Chlorine dioxide, ClO2,, string oxidant but not very stable residual Concerns due to health risks of chemical disinfectants and their by-products (DBPs), especially free chlorine and its DBPs UV radiation
low pressure mercury lamp: low intensity; monochromatic at 254 nm medium pressure mercury lamp: higher intensity; polychromatic 220-280 nm) reacts primarily with nucleic acids: pyrimidine dimers and other alterations

Disinfection Kinetics
Disinfection is a kinetic process Increased inactivation with increased exposure or contact time.
Chick's Law: disinfection is a first-order reaction. (NOT!) Multihit-hit or concave up kinetics: initial slow rate; multiple targets to be hit Concave down or retardant kinetics: initial fast rate; decreases over time Different susceptibilities of microbes to inactivation; heterogeneous population Decline of of disinfectant concentration over time CT Concept: Disinfection can be expressed at the product of disinfectant concentration X contact time Applies best when disinfection kinetics are first order Disinfectant concentration and contact time have an equal effect on CT products Applies less well when either time ofrconcentration is more important.

DISINFECTION AND MICROBIAL INACTIVATION KINETICS

First Order

Multihit

Log Survivors

Retardant

Contact Time

Factors Influencing Disinfection of Microbes

Microbe type: disinfection resistance from least to most: vegetative bacteria viruses protozoan cysts, spores and eggs Type of disinfectant: order of efficacy against Giardia from best to worst O3 ClO2 iodine/free chlorine chloramines
BUT, order of effectiveness varies with type of microbe

Microbial aggregation:
protects microbes from inactivation microbes within aggregates can not be readily reached by the disinfectant

Effects of Water Quality on Disinfection

Particulates: protect microbes from inactivation
microbes shielded or embedded in particles

Dissolved organics: protects

consumes or absorbs (UV radiation) disinfectant coats microbes

Inorganic compounds and ions: effects vary with disinfectant pH: effects depend on disinfectant.
Free chlorine more biocidal at low pH where HOCl predominates. Chlorine dioxide more microbiocidal at high pH

Reactor design, mixing and hydraulic conditions; better activity in "plug flow" than in "batch-mixed" reactors.

Inactivation of Cryptosporidium Oocysts in Water by Chemical Disinfectants

Disinfectant CT99 (mg-min/L) Reference

Free Chlorine Monochloramine

7,200+ 7,200+

Korich et al., 1990 Korich et al., 1990

Chlorine Dioxide
Mixed oxidants Ozone

>78
<120 ~3-18

Korich et al., 1990

Venczel et al., 1997 Finch et al., 1994 Korich et al., 1990 Owens et al., 1994

C. parvum oocysts inactivated by low doses of UV radiation: <10 mJoules/cm2

Disinfection: A Key Barrier Against Microbes in Water

Free chlorine still the most commonly used disinfectant Maintaining disinfectant residual during treated water storage and distribution is essential.
A problem for O3 and ClO2, which do not remain in water for very long. A secondary disinfectant must be used to provide a stable residual

UV radiation is a promising disinfectant because it inactivates Cryptosporidium at low doses

UV may have to be used with a chemical disinfectant to protect the water with a residual through distribution and storage