UNIT-I

Basics of Signals and Systems

By
V.Triveni
Assistant Professor

Electronics and Communication Engineering Department

Guru Nanak Institutions Technical Campus, Ibrahimpatnam, Telangana, India
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 SYLLABUS:
• Signal Analysis: Analogy between Vectors and
Signals, Orthogonal Signal Space, Signal
approximation using Orthogonal functions,
Mean Square Error, Closed or complete set of
Orthogonal functions, Orthogonality in
Complex functions, Exponential and Sinusoidal
signals, Concepts of Impulse function, Unit
Step function, Signum function.

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 Introduction to Signals
• A Signal is the function of one or more independent
variables that carries some information to
represent a physical phenomenon.
e.g. ECG, EEG
• Two Types of Signals
1. Continuous-time signals
2. Discrete-time signals

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 Classification of Signals
Continuous-Time Signals:
• Signal that has a value for all points in time
• Function of time
– Written as x(t) because the signal “x” is a function of time
• Commonly found in the physical world
– ex. Human speech
• Displayed graphically as a line

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 Discrete-Time Signals
• Signal that has a value for only specific points in time
• Typically formed by “sampling” a continuous-time
signal
– Taking the value of the original waveform at
specific intervals in time
• Function of the sample value, n
– Write as x[n]
– Often called a sequence

Sample number

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Both continuous & discrete time signals are
classified into,
• Deterministic & Non-deterministic signals
• Periodic & Aperiodic signals
• Even & Odd signals
• Energy & Power signals

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 Deterministic & Non Deterministic
Signals
Deterministic signals
• Behavior of these signals is predictable w.r.t time
• There is no uncertainty with respect to its value at
any time.
• These signals can be expressed mathematically.
For example x(t) = sin(3t) is deterministic signal.

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Non Deterministic or Random signals
• Behavior of these signals is random i.e. not
predictable w.r.t time.
• There is an uncertainty with respect to its
value at any time.
• These signals can’t be expressed
mathematically.
• For example Thermal Noise generated is
non deterministic signal.

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 Periodic and Non-periodic Signals
Periodic Signals
• Given x(t) is a continuous-time signal
• x (t) is periodic if x(t) = x(t+Tₒ) for any T and
any integer n
• Given x(n) is a discrete time signal
• x (n) is periodic if x(n) = x(n+N) for any N and
any integer t

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Non-Periodic Signals
• For non-periodic Continuous-time signals:
x(t) ≠ x(t+Tₒ)
• For non-periodic discrete-time signals:
x(n) ≠ x(n+N)
• A non-periodic signal is assumed to have a
period T = ∞.
• Example of non periodic signal is an
exponential signal.

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 Even and Odd Signals
(for Continuous)
Even Functions Odd Functions

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 Even and Odd Signals
(for Discrete)
Even Functions Odd Functions

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 Even and Odd Parts of Functions

A function whose even part is zero, is odd and

a function whose odd part is zero, is even.

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 Energy and Power Signals
Energy Signal
• A signal with finite energy and zero power is
called Energy Signal.
• For energy signal
0<E<∞ and P =0
• Signal energy of a signal is defined as the area
under the square of the magnitude of the
signal.

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 Energy and Power Signals Contd
Power Signal
• Some signals have infinite signal energy. In that
case it is more convenient to deal with average
signal power.
• For power signals
0<P<∞ and E = ∞
• Average power of the signal is given by

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 Signal Energy and Power for DT Signal

• The signal energy for a discrete time signal x[n] is

• The signal power for a discrete time signal x[n]

is

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Elementary Signals

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Unit Impulse Function

Functions that approach unit step and unit impulse

So unit impulse function is the derivative of the

unit step function or unit step is the integral of the
unit impulse function
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 Representation of Impulse Function

The area under an impulse is called its strength or

weight. It is represented graphically by a vertical arrow.
An impulse with a strength of one is called a unit
impulse.

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Unit Ramp Function

• The unit ramp function is the integral of the unit step function.
• It is called the unit ramp function because for positive t, its
slope is one amplitude unit per time.
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Sinusoidal & Exponential Signals

• Sinusoids and exponentials are important in signal

and system analysis because they arise naturally
in the solutions of the differential equations.
• Sinusoidal Signals can expressed in either of two
ways :
cyclic frequency form- A sin 2Пfot = A sin(2П/To)t
radian frequency form- A sin ωot
ωo = 2Пfo = 2П/To
To = Time Period of the Sinusoidal Wave

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Sinusoidal & Exponential Signals Contd.

x(t) = A sin (2Пfot+ θ) Sinusoidal signal

= A sin (ωot+ θ)

x(t) = Aeat Real Exponential

Complex Exponential
= Aejω̥t = A[cos (ωot) +j sin (ωot)]

θ = Phase of sinusoidal wave

A = amplitude of a sinusoidal or exponential signal
fo = fundamental cyclic frequency of sinusoidal
signal
ωo = radian frequency

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Real Exponential Signals and damped Sinusoidal

x(t) = e-at x(t) = eαt

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Signum Function

Precise Graph Commonly-Used Graph

The signum function, is closely related to the unit-step

function.
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Rectangular Pulse or Gate Function

Rectangular pulse,

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Sinc Function

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 Discrete-Time Signals

• Sampling is the acquisition of the values of a

continuous-time signal at discrete points in time
• x(t) is a continuous-time signal, x[n] is a discrete-
time signal

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Discrete Time Exponential and Sinusoidal
Signals
• DT signals can be defined in a manner analogous to their
continuous-time counter part
x[n] = A sin (2Пn/No+θ)
Discrete Time Sinusoidal Signal
= A sin (2ПFon+ θ)

x[n] = an Discrete Time Exponential Signal

n = the discrete time
A = amplitude
θ = phase shifting radians,
No = Discrete Period of the wave
1/N0 = Fo = Ωo/2 П = Discrete Frequency

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Discrete Time Sinusoidal Signals

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Discrete Time Unit Step Function or Unit
Sequence Function

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Discrete Time Unit Ramp Function

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Discrete Time Unit Impulse Function or Unit
Pulse Sequence

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 Operations of Signals
• Sometime a given mathematical function may
completely describe a signal .
• Different operations are required for different
purposes of arbitrary signals.
• The operations on signals can be
Time Shifting
Time Scaling
Time Inversion or Time Folding

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Time Shifting
• The original signal x(t) is shifted by an amount tₒ.

• X(t)X(t-to) Signal Delayed Shift to the right

• X(t)X(t+to) Signal Advanced Shift to the left

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Time Scaling
• For the given function x(t), x(at) is the time
scaled version of x(t)
• For a ˃ 1,period of function x(t) reduces
and function speeds up. Graph of the
function shrinks.
• For a ˂ 1, the period of the x(t) increases
and the function slows down. Graph of the
function expands.

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Time scaling Contd.
Example: Given x(t) and we are to find y(t) = x(2t).

The period of x(t) is 2 and the period of y(t) is 1,

Example: Given y(t), find w(t)=y(3t)and v(t) = y(t/3).

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 Time Reversal
• Time reversal is also called time folding
• In Time reversal signal is reversed with respect
to time i.e.
y(t) = x(-t) is obtained for the given function

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Operations of Discrete Time Functions

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Operations of Discrete Functions
Contd.
Scaling; Signal Compression

K an integer > 1

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 What is System?

• Systems process input signals to produce output

signals
• A system is combination of elements that
manipulates one or more signals to accomplish a
function and produces some output.
output
input system
signal signal

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 Types of Systems
• Causal & Anticausal
• Linear & Non Linear
• Time Variant &Time-invariant
• Stable & Unstable
• Static & Dynamic
• Invertible & Inverse Systems

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Causal & Anticausal Systems

• Causal system : A system is said to be causal if the

present value of the output signal depends only
on the present and/or past values of the input
signal.
• Example: y[n]=x[n]+1/2x[n-1]

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Causal & Anticausal Systems Contd.

• Anticausal system : A system is said to be

anticausal if the present value of the
output signal depends only on the future
values of the input signal.

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Linear & Non Linear Systems

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 Timeinvariant and Timevariant Systems

• A system is said to be time invariant if a time

delay or time advance of the input signal leads to
a identical time shift in the output signal.

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Stable & Unstable Systems

• A system is said to be bounded-input bounded-

output stable (BIBO stable) iff every bounded
input results in a bounded output.
i.e.

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Static & Dynamic Systems

• A static system is memoryless system

• It has no storage devices
• Its output signal depends on present values of the
input signal
• For example

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Static & Dynamic Systems Contd.
• A dynamic system possesses memory
• It has the storage devices
• A system is said to possess memory if its output
signal depends on past values and future values of
the input signal

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Discrete-Time Systems
• A Discrete-Time System is a mathematical operation that maps
a given input sequence x[n] into an output sequence y[n]

Example:
Moving (Running) Average

Maximum
Ideal Delay System

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Memoryless System

A system is memoryless if the output y[n] at every

value of n depends only on the input x[n] at the
same value of n
Example : Square

Sign

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Linear Systems
• Linear System: A system is linear if and only if

Example: Ideal Delay System

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Time-Invariant Systems
Time-Invariant (shift-invariant) Systems

A time shift at the input causes corresponding time-shift at

output
Example: Square

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Causal System

A system is causal if it’s output is a function of only

the current and previous samples

Examples: Backward Difference

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Stable System
Stability (in the sense of bounded-input bounded-output
BIBO). A system is stable iff every bounded input produces a
bounded output

Example: Square

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 Fourier Series
Definition:
• A Fourier Series is an accurate representation of
a periodic signal and consists of the sum of
sinusoids at the fundamental and harmonic
frequencies.
• Fourier Series are classified into,
1.Trignometric Fourier Series
2.Exponential Fourier Series

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 Fourier Series Contd.
To be described by the Fourier Series the waveform f(t)
must satisfy the following mathematical properties:

1. f(t) is a single-value function except at possibly a finite

number of points.

2. The integral for any t0.

3. f(t) has a finite number of discontinuities within the period

T.
4. f(t) has a finite number of maxima and minima within the
period T.

In practice, f(t) = v(t) or i(t) so the above 4 conditions are

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The expressions for Trigonometric coefficients are
given by

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 Please…
Dr S P YADAV ECE DEPARTMENT

05/20/2024 58
05/20/2024 Dr S P YADAV ECE DEPARTMENT 59