MODULE 2: Transmission Line

Parameters
Conductor materials, Types of conductors- ACSR,
expanded ACSR, Stranded, bundle and composite
conductors; Use of standard wire tables. Current
distortion Effect-Skin effect and proximity effect.
Inductance of a 1-phase system with composite
conductors; Inductance and capacitance of 1-ph & 3-ph
single circuit and double circuit transmission lines with
symmetrical and unsymmetrical spacing; Transposition;
Concept of G.M.D. Effect of earth in 1-ph and 3-ph
lines; Charging current.
 Skin Effect
• When an Alternating Current flows through
a conductor, it is not distributed uniformly
throughout the conductor cross-section. AC
current has a tendency to concentrate near the
surface of the conductor.
• This phenomenon in alternating currents is called
as the skin effect.
 Skin Effect
• The skin effect depends upon the following
factors:
• Conductor material: Better conductors and ferromagnetic
materials experience higher skin effect
• Cross-sectional area of the conductor: skin effect increases
with increase in the cross-sectional area
• Frequency: increases with increase in the frequency
• Shape of the conductor: skin effect is lesser for stranded
conductors than solid conductors
 Proximity Effect
• When two or more conductors carrying
alternating current are close to each other, then
distribution of current in each conductor is
affected due to the varying magnetic field of
each other.
• The varying magnetic field produced by
alternating current induces eddy currents in the
adjacent conductors.
 Proximity Effect
• Due to this, when the nearby conductors
carrying current in the same direction, the
current is concentrated at the farthest side of
the conductors.
• When the nearby conductors are carrying
current in opposite direction to each other, the
current is concentrated at the nearest parts of
the conductors.
• This effect is called as Proximity effect.
Factors Affecting the Proximity Effect:

Frequency – The proximity increases with the increases in the

frequency.
Diameter – The proximity effect increases with the increase in the
conductor.
Structure – This effect is more on the solid conductor as compared
to the stranded conductor (i.e., ASCR) because the surface area of
the stranded conductor is smaller than the solid conductor.
Material – If the material is made up of high ferromagnetic material
then the proximity effect is more on their surface.
Materials Used for Conductor in Transmission Line

• High conductivity
• High tensile strength
• Light weight
• High resistance to corrosion
• High thermal stability
• Low coefficient of thermal expansion
• Low cost
Materials use for transmission lines
• Copper
• Aluminium
• Cadmium – Copper alloys
• Phosphor bronze
• Galvanized steel
• Steel core copper
• Steel core aluminum
 Copper (Cu)
• Copper in pure form is having good
conductivity.
• Copper is the most important and much suitable
material for conductor of Transmission line as it
having high conductivity and high tensile
strength.
• Malleability, weldability and solder ability are
most important properties of copper. More ever
it is having good ductility.
• The only limitation is its cost.
 Aluminium
• Aluminium is having low density, high ductility, good
corrosion resistance and good conductivity, which makes it
suitable to use as electric conductor for transmission and
distribution of electricity.
• The most extensively used material in transmission line is
Aluminium.
• Aluminium is having sufficient conductivity. More ever it is
light in weight.
• The only limitation is its low tensile strength.
• To overcome this limitation steel core is used for increasing
the tensile strength of aluminium conductor such as in ACSR
(Aluminium conductor steel reinforced) conductor.
 Solid Conductor
• It consists of single piece of metal wire.
• It is cheap for manufacturing.
• Skin effect is higher in solid conductors as at higher
frequencies current flow on the surface of the conductors
results in the increase in the effective resistance.
• The main disadvantage of the solid wire is its more rigid
property.
• It cannot be bent easily
 Stranded Conductors
• Stranded wire consists of sub conductors touch each
other.
• It is costlier to manufacture compared to solid wire.
• For the given current carrying capacity the size of
the stranded conductor is large compared to solid
wire.
• Stringing and folding is easier so easy to transport.
• Different elements of strands can be wound together
to get the transmission line of desired property (eg:
ACSR conductor contains Aluminium and Steel
stands wound together).
• Proximity and skin effect is reduced using stranded
conductors.
Sag in Stranded Conductor
 Composite stranded conductors
• In Composite conductors sub conductors touch each other.
Composite conductors are typically stranded conductors. In
Composite conductors different elements are used (In ACSR
conductors aluminium has the properties of light weight,
good conductivity and rustlessness and steel has the
property of high tensile strength). Composite conductors
are employed as they are flexible compared to solid
conductor. Composite conductors reduce proximity effect
and also reduces skin effect up to certain extent.
 Corona effect
• This phenomenon of ionization of surrounding
air around the conductor due to which
luminous glow with hissing noise is rise is
called corona effect.
 Corona in transmission lines
There is a hissing noise with violet glow phenomenon termed
as corona effect which is commonly observed in high voltage
transmission lines. The corona effects leads to high voltage
drop and energy loss along with release of ozone gas.
 Bundle conductors
• Bundled conductors are employed in Extra High
Voltage (EHV) transmission as at higher voltages
corona effect is significant.
• In bundled conductors sub conductors are placed as
certain distance throughout the transmission lines.
This reduces the corona discharge loss and
interference with the communication lines nearby.
 ACSR (Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced)

Aluminium conductor steel-reinforced cable (ACSR) is a type

of high-capacity, high-strength stranded conductor typically used
in overhead power lines.
The outer strands are high-purity aluminium, chosen for its good
conductivity, low weight, low cost, resistance to corrosion and
decent mechanical stress resistance.
The centre strand is steel for additional strength to help support the
weight of the conductor.
 Expanded ACSR
• Expanded ACSR conductors are used in extra high
voltage (EHV) transmission line.
• By the use of a filler such as paper or hessian
between various layers of strands so as to increase
the overall conductor diameter to reduce the
corona loss and electrical stress at conductor
surface.
• Bundled conductors are commonly used in EHV
transmission line to reduce the corona loss and
also reduce the radio interference with
communication circuits
Transmission line parameters
 Resistance of a Transmission Line

• The resistance of transmission line conductors is

the most important cause of power loss in a
transmission line. The resistance R of a line
conductor having resistivity ρ, length l and area of
cross-section a is given by

• In a single phase or 2-wire d.c line, the total

resistance (known as loop resistance) is equal to
double the resistance of either conductor.
 Inductance in Transmission Line

• Electric power is transmitted through the

transmission line with AC high voltage and
current.
• High valued alternating current while flowing
through the conductor sets up magnetic flux
of high strength with alternating nature.
• This high valued alternating magnetic flux
makes a linkage with other adjacent
conductors parallel to the main conductor.
 Inductance in Transmission Line
• Flux linkage in a conductor happens internally and
externally.
• Internally flux linkage is due to self-current and
externally flux linkage due to external flux.
• the term inductance is closely related to the flux
linkage, denoted by λ.

• N number of turn is linked by flux Φ due to current

I
Inductance of Single Conductor of Transmission Line
To calculate the inductance, we need to first calculate the flux linkage of
conductor. The conductor will produce a magnetic flux in its surrounding due its
own current ‘I’. The flux linking of conductor thus may be divided into two
category.

Flux linkage due to internal flux

Flux linkage due to external flux
 Inductance of Single Conductor of Transmission Line
• Calculate each type of flux linkage of conductor and then will add up them
to get the total flux linkage. Once total flux linkage is calculated,
inductance will be equal to total flux linkage divided by current ‘I’.

Flux Linkage due to Internal Flux:

Let a conductor is carrying current I through its length l, x is the internal
variable radius of the conductor and r is the original radius of the
conductor. Now the cross-sectional area with respect to radius x is πx2
square – unit and current Ix is flowing through this cross-sectional area. So
the value of Ix can be expressed in term of original conductor current I and
cross-sectional area πr2 square – unit
Flux Linkage due to Internal Flux:

• Magnetic Field Intensity due to this current

Assuming permeability of conductor to be μ0, magnetic flux density at

the considered point x,
B x = μ 0 Hx
Flux Linkage due to Internal Flux:
Flux Linkage due to External Flux:
• Let us assume, due to skin effect conductor current I is concentrated near
the surface of the conductor. Consider, the distance y is taken from the
centre of the conductor making the external radius of the conductor.
Flux Linkage due to External Flux:

• Hy is the magnetizing force and By is the

magnetic field density at y distance per unit
length of the conductor.

• Let us assume magnetic flux dφ is present

within the thickness dy from D1 to D2 for 1 m
length of the conductor as per the figure.
Flux Linkage due to External Flux:

The total current I is assumed to flow in the surface of

the conductor, so the flux linkage dλ is equal to dφ.

But we have to consider the flux linkage from

conductor surface to any external distance, i.e. r to D
Inductance of Single Conductor of Transmission Line
Inductance of Two Wire Single Phase Transmission Line

• The inductance of a two-wire single-phase transmission line

refers to the property of the line that resists changes in current
flow.
• It is one of the parameters used to characterize the behavior of
the transmission line.
• The inductance (L) of a transmission line is typically
expressed in henries per unit length (H/m) or microhenries per
kilometer (μH/km).
• The inductance is influenced by the physical and electrical
properties of the transmission line, such as the separation
between the conductors, the conductor diameter, and the type
of insulation.
 Inductance of Two Wire Single Phase
Transmission Line
• For a two-wire transmission line, the inductance
per unit length (L) can be calculated using the
formula:
Inductance of Two Wire Single Phase
Transmission Line

The permeability of free space

Inductance of Two Wire Single Phase Transmission Line
• Considered a single phase line consisting of two
conductors (phase and neutral) a and b of equal
radius r. They are situated at a distance D meters. The
cross sections of conductors are shown in the
diagram below.
Let the current flow in the conductors are opposite in
direction so that one becomes return path for the other.
 Inductance of Two Wire Single Phase
Transmission Line
• The flux linkages of conductor ‘a’ is given by:
Inductance of Two Wire Single Phase
Transmission Line
Inductance of symmetrical three-phase line
• In symmetrical three-phase line, all the
conductors are placed at the corners of the
equilateral triangle. Such an arrangement of
conductors is also referred to as equilateral
spacing. It is shown in the diagram below:
 Inductance of symmetrical three-phase line
• Let the spacing between the conductors be D and the radius
of each conductor, r. The flux linkages of conductor a is given
by the equation:

• Here
Inductance of symmetrical three-phase line
Inductance of symmetrical three-phase line

The inductance of conductors b and c will also be the same

as that of a. The inductance of the three-phase line is equal
to the two-wire line.
 Inductance of unsymmetrical three-phase line

• A three-phase line is said to be unsymmetrical when its conductors are situated at

different distances.
• Consider a three-phase unsymmetrical line, having different spacing between their
conductors where the radius of each conductor is r. It is shown in the diagram
below:
Inductance of unsymmetrical three-phase line
Inductance of unsymmetrical three-phase line
 Inductance of unsymmetrical three-phase line

• Since for balanced conditions

Inductance of a 1-phase system with
composite conductors
Capacitance of Transmission Line
Transposition
Concept of G.M.D
Effect of earth in 1-ph and 3-ph lines
Charging current