Chpter 1 Traffic Engineering

Wachemo University
College of Engineering & Technology

Department of Civil Engineering
Traffic & Road Safety Engineering
Chapter 1: Traffic Engineering
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Outline
Chapter 1: Traffic Engineering
1.1 Traffic Surveys
1.1.1 Spot speed studies
1.1.2 Volume studies
1.1.3 Travel time and delay studies
1.1.4 Parking studies
1.2 Traffic Flow Theory
1.2.1 Flow-density relationships
1.2.2 Fundamental diagram of traffic flow
1.2.3 Mathematical relationships describing traffic flow
1.2.4 Shock waves in traffic streams
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Introduction to Traffic Engineering
Traffic Engineering
 The Institute of Traffic Engineers, USA, has defined traffic engineering as “

Traffic engineering is that phase of engineering which deals with planning,
geometric design and traffic operations of roads, streets, and highways, their
networks terminals, abutting lands, and relationships with other mode of
transportation “.
 Professor Ress Blunden of California University has proposed a modified
definition, “ Traffic engineering is the science of measuring traffic and travel,
the study of the basic laws relating to traffic flow and generation and
application of this knowledge to the professional practice of planning,
designing and operating traffic systems to achieve safe and efficient movement
of persons and goods “
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 The road traffic is composed of different categories of vehicular traffic and

pedestrian traffic. Each category of vehicular traffic has two components, the
human element as the driver and the machine as the vehicle.
 The traffic in Ethiopia and many developing countries of the world is
heterogeneous in nature. The available road space is occupied by different
classes of vehicles with widely varying characteristics.
 Many of the urban roads are congested during peak hours, causing delay,
accidents and reduced travel speeds of vehicles. The problem becomes more
complicated as the road space is shared by pedestrians also on several roads.
 Unfortunately, at the planning and design stages, the pedestrians are not
considered as an element in road traffic, as a result the pedestrians constitute a
significant proportion of fatal accident victims in the country.
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Elements of Traffic Engineering

 There are a number of key elements of traffic engineering
1. Traffic studies and characteristics
2. Performance evaluation
3. Facility design
4. Traffic control
5. Traffic operations
6. Transportation system management
7. Integration of intelligent transportation system technologies
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1. Traffic studies and characteristics: involve measuring and quantifying

various aspect of highway traffic. Studies focus on data collection analysis
that is used to characterize traffic, including (but not limited to) traffic
volumes and demands, speed and travel time, delay, accidents, origin and
destination, modal use and other variables.
2. Performance evaluation: is a means by which traffic engineers can rate the
operating characteristics of individual sections of facilities and facilities as a
whole in relative terms. Such evaluation relies on measures of performance
quality and is often stated in terms of ‘’ level of service.’’ levels of service are
letter grades, from A to F, describing how well a facility is operating using
specified performance criteria. Like grades in a course, A is very good, while
F connotes failure (on some level).
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3. Facility design: involves traffic engineers in the functional and geometric
design of highways and other traffic facilities.
4. Traffic control: is a central function of traffic engineers and involves the
establishment of the traffic regulations and their communication to the driver
through the use of traffic control devices, such as signs, markings, and
signals.
5. Traffic operations: involves measures that influence overall operation of
traffic facilities, such as one-way street systems, transit operations, curb
management, and surveillance and network control systems.
6. Transportation system management (TSM): involves virtually all aspects of
traffic engineering in a focus on optimizing system capacity and operations.
Specific aspect of TSM include high-occupancy vehicle priority systems, car-
pooling programs, pricing strategies to manage demand, and similar
functions
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7. Integration of intelligent transportation system (ITS) technologies: refers to

the application of modern telecommunications technology to the operation
and control of transportation systems. Such as; automated highways,
automated toll-collection systems, vehicle-tracking systems, in-vehicle GPS
and mapping systems, automated enforcement of traffic lights and speed laws,
and others.
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1.1 Traffic Surveys
 Traffic studies are conducted to furnish the traffic engineer with the factual
information he needs, both to identify the magnitude of traffic problem and to
provide him with the data required for a quantitative approach to the solution
of the problems.
 Traffic problems include highway-related crashes, parking difficulties,
congestion, and delay.
 To reduce the negative impact of highways, it is necessary to adequately collect
information that describes the extent of the problems and identifies their
locations.
 This information is usually collected by organizing and conducting traffic
surveys and studies. Both peak and off-peak period study can be used in the
study
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1.1 Traffic Surveys
Traffic studies may be grouped into three main categories:

(1) Inventories,
(2) Administrative studies, and
(3) Dynamic studies.
1. Inventories: provide a list or graphic display of existing information, such as
street widths, parking spaces, transit routes, traffic regulations, and so forth.
Some inventories for example, available parking spaces and traffic
regulations change frequently and therefore require periodic updating;
others, such as street widths, do not.
2. Administrative studies: use existing engineering records, available in
government agencies and departments. This information is used to prepare an
inventory of the relevant data. Records of man power and equipment
requirements for task accomplishment are critically important in operational
budgeting and planning.
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1.1 Traffic Surveys
3. Dynamic traffic studies: involve the collection of data under operational

conditions and include studies of speed, traffic volume, travel time and delay,
parking, and crashes.
1.1.1 Spot Speed Studies

 Average speed of vehicles passing a point on a highway.
 Measuring vehicular speeds at a specific location is a spot speed study.
 A spot speed study is carried out by recording the speeds of a sample of vehicles
at a specified location.
 The speed of a vehicle is defined as the rate of movement of the vehicle; it is
usually expressed in miles per hour (mi/h) or kilometers per hour (km/h).
Spot speed study is used to ?

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Speed characteristics determined from a spot speed study may be used to:
 Establish parameters for traffic operation and control, such as speed zones,
speed limits (85th-percentile speed is commonly used as the speed limit on a
road), and passing restrictions.
 Evaluate the effectiveness of traffic control devices, such as variable message
signs at work zones.
 Evaluate and or determine the adequacy of highway geometric characteristics,
such as radii of horizontal curves and lengths of vertical curves.
 Evaluate the effect of speed on highway safety through the analysis of crash
data for different speed characteristics.
 Determine the general speed trend
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Locations for Spot Speed Studies

1. Locations that represent different traffic conditions on a highway or highways
are used for basic data collection.
2. Mid-blocks of urban highways and straight, level sections of rural highways
are sites for speed trend analyses.
3. Any location may be used for the solution of a specific traffic engineering
problem.
Time of Day and Duration of Spot Speed Studies
 The time of day for conducting a speed study depends on the purpose of the
study.
 In general, when the purpose of the study is to establish posted speed limits, to
observe speed trends, or to collect basic data, it is recommended that the study
be conducted when traffic is free-flowing, usually during off-peak hours.
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 The duration of the study should be such that the minimum number of vehicle
speeds required for statistical analysis is recorded. Typically, the duration is at
least 1 hour and the sample size is at least 30 vehicles.
Methods for Conducting Spot Speed Studies
 The methods used for conducting spot speed studies can generally be divided
into two main categories: manual and automatic.
 Since the manual method is rarely used, automatic methods will be described.
 Road Detectors
 Radar-Based Traffic Sensors
 Electronic-Principle Detectors
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 The Autoscope uses electronic principles and the RTMS meter uses Doppler or
Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave (FMCW) principles and both are
also capable of obtaining vehicle counts while obtaining speed data
The RTMS Radar-Based Traffic Sensor
Figure 11ai RTMS Deployed in the Forward Looking Mode
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The RTMS Radar-Based Traffic Sensor
Figure 1.1aii RTMS Deployed in the Side-fire Mode

SOURCE: From http://www.roadtraffic-technology.com/contractors/detection/eis/
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Why ?
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Table 1.1a Time and Speed Measurements

Vehicle Time to travel 176ft (sec) Velocity (mph)
1 1.9 63
2 2.1 57
3 2.1 57
4 1.8 67
5 2.3 52
6 2.0 60
7 2.2 55
8 2.0 60
9 1.7 71
10 1.9 63
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Group assignment -1 (10%)

On time/space-mean speed study
 On the selected mid block
 Sample size -30
 Sub. Date: Next week
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1.1. 2 Volume Studies

 Traffic flow or volume is defined as the number of vehicles of the stream that
crosses a fixed reference point on the road over a unit period of time. It is
measured in terms of vehicles per hour.
 Measuring of the time rate of vehicles passing a specific point on a roadway is
called volume/flow study.
 Traffic volume varies during the different hours of the day, days of the week,
and weeks of the year.
 This time period varies from as little as 15 minutes to as much as a year
depending on the anticipated use of the data. The data collected also may be
put into subclasses which may include directional movement, occupancy rates,
vehicle classification, and pedestrian age.
 Traffic volume studies are usually conducted when certain volume
characteristics are needed, some of which follow:
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1. Average Annual Daily Traffic(AADT): is the average of 24-hour counts
collected every day of the year. AADTs are used in several traffic and
transportation analyses for: (Bonus) ⇒⇒⇒⇒⇒⇒⇒⇒⇒⇒⇒ ERA
a) Estimation of highway user revenues
b) Computation of crash rates in terms of number of crashes per 100
million vehicle miles
c) Establishment of traffic volume trends
d) Evaluation of the economic feasibility of highway projects
e) Development of freeway and major arterial street systems
f) Development of improvement and maintenance programs
2. Average Daily Traffic (ADT): is the average of 24-hour counts collected over
a number of days greater than one but less than a year. ADTs may be used
for:
a. Planning of highway activities
b. Measurement of current demand
c. Evaluation of existing traffic flow
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3. Peak Hour Volume (PHV) is the maximum number of vehicles that pass a
point on a highway during a period of 60 consecutive minutes. PHVs are used
for:
a. Functional classification of highways
b. Design of the geometric characteristics of a highway, for example,
number of lanes, intersection signalization, or channelization
c. Capacity analysis
d. Development of programs related to traffic operations, for example,
one-way street systems or traffic routing
e. Development of parking regulations
4. Vehicle Classification (VC) records volume with respect to the type of vehicles,
for example, passenger cars, two-axle trucks, or three-axle trucks. VC is used
in:
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a. Design of geometric characteristics, with particular reference to turning-radii

requirements, maximum grades, lane widths, and so forth
b. Capacity analyses, with respect to passenger-car equivalents of trucks
c. Adjustment of traffic counts obtained by machines
d. Structural design of highway pavements, bridges, and so forth
5. Vehicle Miles of Travel (VMT) is a measure of travel along a section of road.

 It is the product of the traffic volume (that is, average weekday volume or
ADT) and the length of roadway in miles to which the volume is applicable.
 VMTs are used mainly as a base for allocating resources for maintenance and
improvement of highways.
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Methods of Conducting Volume Counts

 Traffic volume counts are conducted using two basic methods: manual and
automatic.
 This count may be stratified by time of day, direction of travel, lane and type of
vehicle.
A. Manual Method: Manual counting involves one or more persons recording
observed vehicles using a counter. With this type of counter, both the turning
movements at the intersection and the types of vehicles can be recorded.
 For low volume, tally marks on a form are adequate.
 The traffic volume is collected for every 15 minute consecutive intervals.
 Note that in general, the inclusion of pickups and light trucks with four tires in
the category of passenger cars does not create any significant deficiencies in
the data collected, since the performance characteristics of these vehicles are
similar to those of passenger cars.
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Manual counts are made when;

 The desired data cannot be obtained by mechanical or automatic counting
equipment or
 The cost of installing such equipment is greater than gathering the data
manually. The primary groups of data in this category are turning movements
at intersections, classification of vehicle by type, and relating vehicle counts to
axle counts. Intersection counts are usually conducted manually.
 More counts are scheduled at one time than there is equipment available and
when vandalism may be a problem.
 Short-term counts on multilane facilities where permanent detectors are
unavailable usually have to be conducted manually because of the difficulty of
placing and maintaining portable counting equipment.
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The main disadvantages of the manual count method are that

(1) it is labor intensive and therefore can be expensive,
(2) it is subject to the limitations of human factors, and
(3) it cannot be used for long periods of counting.
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B. Automatic Method: Automatic counters can be classified into two general

categories:
1. Those that require the laying of detectors (surface or subsurface), and
2. Those that do not require the laying of detectors.
 Automatic counters that require the laying of surface detectors (such as
pneumatic road tubes) or subsurface detectors (non invasive, such as magnetic
or electric contact devices) on the road, detect the passing vehicle and transmit
the information to a recorder, which is connected to the detector at the side of
the road.
 Automatic counters that do not require the laying of detectors use one of many
technologies including electronics: Doppler principles, laser scanning, and
infrared.
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Question?
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1.1. 3 Travel time and delay studies

 A travel time study determines the amount of time required to travel from one
point to another on a given route.
 In conducting such a study, information may also be collected on the locations,
durations, and causes of delays. When this is done, the study is known as a
travel time and delay study.
 Data obtained from travel time and delay studies give a good indication of the
level of service on the study section.
 These data also aid the traffic engineer in identifying problem locations, which
may require special attention in order to improve the overall flow of traffic on
the route.
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Applications of Travel Time and Delay Data
The data obtained from travel time and delay studies may be used in any one of the
following traffic engineering tasks:
 Determination of the efficiency of a route with respect to its ability to carry
traffic
 Identification of locations with relatively high delays and the causes for those
delays
 Performance of before-and-after studies to evaluate the effectiveness of traffic
operation improvements
 Determination of travel times on specific links for use in trip assignment
models
 Compilation of travel time data that may be used in trend studies to evaluate
the changes in efficiency and level of service with time
 Performance of economic studies in the evaluation of traffic operation
alternatives that reduce travel time
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Definition of Terms Related to Time and Delay Studies

Certain terms commonly used in travel time and delay studies:
1. Travel time: is the time taken by a vehicle to traverse a given section of a
highway.
2. Running time: is the time a vehicle is actually in motion while traversing a
given section of a highway.
3. Delay: is the time lost by a vehicle due to causes beyond the control of the
driver.
4. Operational delay: is that part of the delay caused by the impedance of other
traffic. This impedance can occur either as side friction, where the stream
flow is interfered with by other traffic (for example, parking or un-parking
vehicles), or as internal friction, where the interference is within the traffic
stream (for example, reduction in capacity of the highway).
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5. Stopped-time delay is that part of the delay during which the vehicle is at rest.
6. Fixed delay is that part of the delay caused by control devices such as traffic
signals. This delay occurs regardless of the traffic volume or the impedance that
may exist.
7. Travel-time delay is the difference between the actual travel time and the travel
time that will be obtained by assuming that a vehicle traverses the study section at
an average speed equal to that for an uncongested traffic flow on the section being
studied.
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Methods for Conducting Travel Time and Delay Studies
 The most direct way of obtaining the travel time for several vehicles between
two points in the highway system is by recording the time of entry and the time
of exit for individual vehicles traversing the study section.
 Several methods have been used to conduct travel time and delay studies. These
methods can be grouped into two general categories:
1) Those using a test vehicle and
2) Those not requiring a test vehicle
 The particular technique used for any specific study depends on the reason
for conducting the study and the available personnel and equipment.
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 A second stopwatch also may be used to determine the time that passes each
time the vehicle is stopped. The sum of these times for any test run will give the
stopped-time delay for that run.
 Alternatively, the driver alone can collect the data by using a laptop computer
with internal clock and distance functions. The predetermined locations
(control points) are first programmed into the computer. At the start of the run,
the driver activates the clock and distance functions; then the driver presses the
appropriate computer key for each specified location. The data are then
recorded automatically.
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iii. Moving-Vehicle Technique

 Is a technique whereby the test vehicle obtains not only travel time information
but traffic flow information as well.
 In addition to recording the travel time in each direction along a study section,
three vehicles counts are taken: the number of opposing vehicle met, the
number of vehicles overtaking the test vehicle, and the number of vehicle
passed by the test vehicle.
 In this technique, the observer makes a round trip on a test section like the one
shown in Figure below, where it is assumed that the road runs east to west. The
observer starts collecting the relevant data at section X-X, drives the car
eastward to section Y-Y, then turns the vehicle around and drives westward to
section X-X again.
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Example: Volume and Travel 1.1 TimeTraffic Surveys Technique
Using Moving-Vehicle
The data in Table below were obtained in a travel time study on a section of highway
using the moving-vehicle technique. Determine the travel time and volume in each
direction at this section of the highway.
1. Mean time it takes to travel eastward
2. Mean time it takes to travel westbound
3. Average number of vehicles traveling westward when test vehicle is traveling
eastward
4. Average number of vehicles traveling eastward when test vehicle is traveling

westward
5. Average number of vehicles that overtake test vehicle while it is traveling

westward
6. Average number of vehicles that overtake test vehicle while it is traveling

eastward
7. Average number of vehicles the test vehicle passes while traveling westward
8. Average number of vehicles the test vehicle passes while traveling eastward45
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Run Travel No. of Vehicles Traveling No. of Vehicles that No. of Vehicles Overtaken
Direction/Number Time (min) in Opposite Direction Overtook Test Vehicle by Test Vehicle
Eastward
1 2.75 80 1 1
2 2.55 75 2 1
3 2.85 83 0 3
4 3 78 0 1
5 3.05 81 1 1
6 2.7 79 3 2
7 2.82 82 1 1
8 3.08 78 0 2
Average 2.85 79.5 1 1.5
Westward
1 2.95 78 2 0
2 3.15 83 1 1
3 3.2 89 1 1
4 2.83 86 1 0
5 3.3 80 2 1
6 3 79 1 2
7 3.22 82 2 1
8 2.91 81 0 1
Average 3.07 82.25 1.25 0.875
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B. Methods Not Requiring a Test Vehicle

 This category includes the license-plate method and the interview method.
 The license-plate method requires that observers be positioned at the beginning
and end of the test section. Observers also can be positioned at other locations if
elapsed times to those locations are required. Each observer records the last
three or four digits of the license plate of each car that passes, together with the
time at which the car passes.
 The reduction of the data is accomplished in the office by matching the times of
arrival at the beginning and end of the test section for each license plate
recorded.
 The difference between these times is the traveling time of each vehicle. The
average of these is the average traveling time on the test section. It has been
suggested that a sample size of 50 matched license plates will give reasonably
accurate results.
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1.1.4 Parking Studies

 Any vehicle traveling on a highway will at one time or another be parked
for either a relatively short time or a much longer time, depending on the
reason for parking.
 The provision of parking facilities is therefore an essential element of the
highway mode of transportation.
 The need for parking spaces is usually very great in areas where land uses
include business, residential, or commercial activities.
 The growing use of the automobile as a personal feeder service to transit
systems (“park-and-ride”) has also increased the demand for parking
spaces at transit stations. In areas of high density, where space is very
expensive, the space provided for automobiles usually has to be divided
between that allocated for their movement and that allocated for parking
them.
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 Providing adequate parking space to meet the demand for parking in the
CBD may necessitate the provision of parking bays along curbs which
reduces the capacity of the streets and may affect the level of service.
 This problem usually confronts a city traffic engineer. The solution is not
simple, since the allocation of available space will depend on the goals of the
community which the traffic engineer must take into consideration when
trying to solve the problem.
 Parking studies are therefore used to determine the demand for and the
supply of parking facilities in an area, the projection of the demand, and the
views of various interest groups on how best to solve the problem. Before we
discuss the details of parking studies, it is necessary to discuss the different
types of parking facilities.
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Types of Parking Facilities

 Parking facilities can be divided into two main groups: on-street and off-street.
On-Street Parking Facilities These are also known as curb facilities. Parking bays
are provided alongside the curb on one or both sides of the street. These bays can be
unrestricted parking facilities if the duration of parking is unlimited and parking is
free, or they can be restricted parking facilities if parking is limited to specific times of
the day for a maximum duration. Parking at restricted facilities may or may not be
free. Restricted facilities also may be provided for specific purposes, such as to provide
handicapped parking or as bus stops or loading bays.
Off-Street Parking Facilities These facilities may be privately or publicly owned; they
include surface lots and garages. Self-parking garages require that drivers park their
own automobiles; attendant-parking garages maintain personnel to park the
automobiles.
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Off-Street Parking Facilities
Meskel Square Underground Parking
On-Street Parking Facilities
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 Parking lanes: Parking lanes are provided on urban roads to allow kerb parking.
As per as possible, only parallel parking should be allowed as it is safer for
moving vehicles. Also the clearance available between the parked vehicles and the
edge of adjacent lane is more in the case of parallel parking than in angle
parking. For parallel parking, the minimum lane width should be 3 m.
Parallel Parking
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Question?
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1.2.1 Flow-density relationships
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 An objective of traffic and transportation engineering is to control the traffic

stream on a set of roads (a network) so as to reduce delay or improve flow
without inducing undesirable side effect to society at large.
 Traffic flow can be studied on two levels, namely the microscopic or
macroscopic approaches.
 Microscopic Approach: The microscopic approach considers the movement
of individual or discrete vehicles as they interact with each other. Three basic
characteristics may be identified, namely microscopic speed, time headways
and distance headways.
 Macroscopic Approach: The macroscopic approach considers traffic as a
continuum akin to a fluid moving along a duct which is the highway. Three
basic characteristics may be identified, namely macroscopic speed, flow and
density (or concentration).
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 Traffic along reasonably crowded road, with no appreciable gaps between

individual vehicles. In this case, traffic may be viewed as continuum, and its
characteristics correspond to the physical characteristics of the imaging fluid.
 Traffic flow theory involves the development of mathematical relationships
among the primary elements of a traffic stream: flow, density, and speed.
Traffic flow theory study is used to ?

 These relationships help the traffic engineer in planning, designing, and
evaluating the effectiveness of implementing traffic engineering measures on
a highway system.
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 Traffic flow theory used in design to determine

 Adequate lane lengths for storing left-turn vehicles on separate left-
turn lanes,
 The average delay at intersections and freeway ramp merging areas,
and changes in the level of freeway performance due to the installation
of improved vehicular control devices on ramps.
 Another important application of traffic flow theory is simulation where
mathematical algorithms are used to study the complex interrelationships that
exist among the elements of a traffic stream or network and to estimate the
effect of changes in traffic flow on factors such as crashes, travel time, air
pollution, and gasoline consumption.
 This section mainly presents a description of fundamental characteristics of
traffic stream flow namely, flow, speed, density, and their related
characteristics.
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 Headway is the time gap between successive vehicles in a traffic stream

(strictly it is the time gap between the same point on two vehicles, e.g. the
front bumper bar or the front axle, so that headway is independent of vehicle
length).
 The mean headway for a traffic stream is the reciprocal of q.
 Spacing is the distance between the same physical point on two successive
vehicles.
 The mean spacing for a traffic stream is the reciprocal of density.
 Occupancy is the portion of time that a designed point in a traffic lane is
covered by vehicle.
 Occupancy directly related to density.
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i. The relationship between the density (veh/km) and the corresponding flow
of traffic on a highway is generally referred to as the fundamental diagram
of traffic flow.
 The following theory has been postulated with respect to the shape of the
curve representing this relationship:
Flow-Density
1. When the density on the highway is 0, the flow is also 0 because there are
no vehicles on the highway.
2. As the density increases, the flow also increases.
3. However, when the density reaches its maximum, generally referred to as
the jam density (kj), the flow must be 0 because vehicles will tend to line up
end to end.
4. It follows that as density increases from 0, the flow will also initially
increase from 0 to a maximum value.
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 Further continuous increase in density will then result in continuous reduction

of the flow, which will eventually be 0 when the density is equal to the jam
density. The shape of the curve therefore takes the form in Figure 1.2a below.
Fig. 1.2a Flow versus density
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 From Eq. 1.2, we know that space mean speed is flow divided by density
which makes the slopes of lines 0B, 0C, and 0E in Figure 1.2a represent the
space mean speeds at densities kb, kc, and ke, respectively.
 The slope of line 0A is the speed as the density tends to 0 and little interaction
exists between vehicles.
 The slope of this line is therefore the mean free speed (uf); it is the maximum
speed that can be attained on the highway.
 The slope of line 0E is the space mean speed for maximum flow.
 This maximum flow is the capacity of the highway.
 Thus, it can be seen that it is desirable for highways to operate at densities
not greater than that required for maximum flow.
 The relationship between mean speed and volume is actually envelope, with
the horseshoe curve defining a feasible region for traffic flow under different
combinations of volume and speed
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Figure 1.2b Space mean speed versus volume

 The diagram shown in the figure a, b, and c are called as Fundamental
Diagrams of Traffic flow
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Figure 1.2c Space mean speed versus density
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 The value of concentration at the end is
denoted by the jam concentration kj.
again, maximum flow or capacity occurs
at intermediate values of speed um and
concentration km
 The diagram shown in the figure 1.2d are

called as Fundamental Diagrams of
Traffic flow
Fig. 1.2d Relationship b/n

flow, speed, and density
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 Mathematical relationships describing traffic flow can be classified into two
general categories—macroscopic and microscopic—depending on the
approach used in the development of these relationships.
 The macroscopic approach considers flow density relationships whereas the
microscopic approach considers spacing's between vehicles and speeds of
individual vehicles.
Macroscopic Approach
 The macroscopic approach considers traffic streams and develops algorithms
that relate the flow to the density and space mean speeds. The two most
commonly used macroscopic models are the Greenshields and Greenberg
models.
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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FUNDAMENTAL
ELEMENTS
Let a traffic flow(q) has a speed u,

the mean time interval b/n two successive vehicles measured b/n
corresponding points of the vehicles is the reciprocal of flow:
∆tavg = 1/q = havg . . . . . (1)
The average spacing b/n the vehicles is:
Savg = havg ×u, Savg = u/q . . . . .(2)
• The average spacing, Savg, can also be expressed interms of density(k) in the given
lengthn of thenroad(L). 1 1 1
k    ,  S avg  .........(3) Where n is no of
L S i
1
 Si
S avg k vehicles in length L
n
Substituting (3) in (2), q = ku …..(a) fundamental equation
of traffic flow. 97
Basic Traffic Stream Models
 Additional r/ship b/n the three fundamental elements has to be

established, in addition to the fundamental equation, in order to
fully analyze the traffic flow stream.
 Approaches like curve fittings were used.
So far three models are developed

Greenshield model- linear relationship
Greenberg model –logarithmic relationship
Underwood model-exponential relationship
98
Models . . . contd
 Greenshield’s Model: Assumes a linear u-k r/ship and parabolic

q-k r/ship.
a) Speed- Density Model

 Consider a single car traveling along a highway
 By definition density will tend to zero
 The speed at which the car can be driven is determined solely by
the geometric design & layout of the road
 The speed @ which the density is near to zero (0) is defined as
Free flow speed (uf)

99
SPEED- DENSITY (CONT…)
 As more vehicles use the section of the highway,

density increases & speed decreases from its
maximum free flow value
 If the above condition persists, a point is reached
where traffic will be brought to a stop. i.e., u= 0,
with the density at its maximum point as cars are
jammed bumper to pumper, termed Jam Density
(kj) 100
SPEED- DENSITY …..(CONT
 The limiting values are, when k=0,u=uf & when u=0, k=kj
Equation (b)
101
MODELS(CONT …)
b)Flow- Density Model

 Combining the relations for u & relations between flow,
density, and speed gives
K
q  uk  u f (1  ) K
Kj
k2
q  u f (k  ) Equation (c)
kj
102
FLOW- DENSITY (CONT…)
 In order to determine the density at which maximum

flow occurs, differentiate eqn (c)
Equation (d)
103
MODELS(CONT …)
c) Speed-Flow Model
 Rearranging equ (b) for k and combining it with equ (a)
gives
u
k  k j (1  )
uf
u2
q  k j (u  )
uf
Equation (e)
104
SPEED-FLOW (CONT…)
 In order to determine the speed at maximum flow occurs,
differentiate eqn (e) w.r.t. u
uf Equation (f)
um 
2
 Combining eqn (d) & eqn (f) gives,

uf kj uf kj
qm  u m k m  
2 2 4
105
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Figure 1.2e Relationships among the
fundamental stream flow characteristics for
the linear speed – density model.
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 Upon examination of field speed-density data, it is apparent that a strictly linear

relationship does not always exist over the entire range of observation. Most data
are better described by the curve shown in figure 1.2f.
 A linear model is appropriate for the center portion of the curve; however, the
data suggests the possibility of other models that would take into account the
apparent curvature that exists in the remaining portions.
Figure 1.2f General type of seed – density curve obtained by field data.
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 The traffic models discussed thus far can be used to determine specific
characteristics, such as the speed and density at which maximum flow
occurs, and the jam density of a facility.
 This usually involves collecting appropriate data on the particular facility of
interest and fitting the data points obtained to a suitable model.
 The most common method of approach is regression analysis.
 This is done by minimizing the squares of the differences between the
observed and expected values of a dependent variable.
 When the dependent variable is linearly related to the independent variable,
the process is known as linear regression analysis.
 When the relationship is with two or more independent variables, the process
is known as multiple linear regression analysis.
05/16/2024 115
c
T raffi
on
n di xB L este
e er
e e App . Garb
s sJ
a &b h o la
ns , N i c
q u atio i t i on
ee Ed
f t hes o u rth
o F
m ent e rin g
lo p ne ia
r d eve E ngi i rg i n
F o w a y f V
H i gh
e rs it y o
an d niv
o el U
05/16/2024 A. H 116
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Table 1.2a Speed and Density Observations at a Rural Road
(i) Computations for Example 1.2a
Speed, Density, k
(mi/hr) (veh/mi)
53.2 20 1064 400
48.1 27 1298.7 729
44.8 35 1568 1225
40.1 44 1764.4 1936
37.3 52 1939.6 2704
35.2 58 2041.6 3364
34.1 60 2046 3600
27.2 64 1740.8 4096
20.4 70 1428 4900
17.5 75 1312.5 5625
14.6 82 1197.2 6724
13.1 90 1179 8100
11.2 100 1120 10000
8 115 920 13225
Sum = 404.8 Sum = 892 Sum = 20619.8 Sum = 66628
= 28.91 = 63.71
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(ii) Computations for Example 1.2b
Speed, (mi/hr) Density, k ln
(veh/mi)
53.2 20 2.995732 159.3729 8.97441
48.1 27 3.295837 158.5298 10.86254
44.8 35 3.555348 159.2796 12.6405
40.1 44 3.78419 151.746 14.32009
37.3 52 3.951244 147.3814 15.61233
35.2 58 4.060443 142.9276 16.4872
34.1 60 4.094345 139.6172 16.76366
27.2 64 4.158883 113.1216 17.29631
20.4 70 4.248495 86.6693 18.04971
17.5 75 4.317488 75.55604 18.6407
14.6 82 4.406719 64.3381 19.41917
13.1 90 4.49981 58.94751 20.24829
11.2 100 4.60517 51.5779 21.20759
8 115 4.744932 37.95946 22.51438
Sum = 404.8 Sum = 892 Sum = 56.71864 Sum = 1547.024 Sum = 233.0369
= 28.91 = 4.05
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Figure 1.2i Speed versus Density Figure 1.2j Volume versus Density
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Question?
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1.1 Traffic Surveys
Group assignment -2 (10%)

On Traffic Flow Theory
On the selected mid block
 Sample size -30
 Sub. Date: Next week
Test
05/16/2024 127

What is shockwave? (concept)
 A wave is produced by dropping a stone in water. In this time the disturbance
is created in water and traveled in the form of wave.
 Similarly, in the traffic case also whenever disturbance is created in the flow
shockwaves are formed.
 Any change in the flow condition will travel in the form of a wave is said to
be shockwave.
 In urban areas, traffic interruptions are very common situations at the mid
blocks and also at the intersections due to various unforeseen obstructions.
 The density of traffic will be increasing day by day and the absence of desired
infrastructure on the roads will make the traffic flow interruptions
continuously.
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 In such a situation, a stream of traffic flowing under certain conditions of

speed and density meets another stream flowing under some other condition
of speed and density.
 For example, if a traffic stream flowing at high speed meets another stream
flowing at a greater density and lower speed, the former traffic stream will
face a traffic interruption. Due to these interruptions, the speed of the
vehicles in a platoon will be reduced enormously.
 Such type of interruptions due to which the vehicles speed gets reduced in a
traffic stream are called as Shockwaves in traffic flow.
 These shockwaves are common in urban areas.
 In some situations the shock wave can be very mild, like a platoon of high-
speed vehicles catching up to a slightly slower moving vehicle.
 In other situations the shock wave can be a very significant change in flow
states, as when high-speed vehicles approach a queue of stopped vehicles.
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05/16/2024 130
Up stream q-k curve
Down stream q-k curve
Figure 1.2k. Kinematic and Shock Wave Measurements Related to Flow-Density Curve
05/16/2024 131
Types of shockwave
 Several types of shock waves can be formed, depending on the traffic
conditions (nature of disturbance) that lead to their formation these include:
 Backward propagating ------ behind a signal or accident
 Forward propagating ------ beyond a signal or after the accident is cleared
 Stationary ------ when two streams having the same flow value but different
density is join together, the stationary shockwave is formed or when two
streams having the same density value but different flow is join together, the
stationary shockwave is formed
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i. Shockwave along a highway when traffic stream interrupted by slow

moving truck
Assume that all vehicles travelling at the same speed of 60km/hr
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The truck moving at speed of 20km/hr until the time t = 0
 Passing is not permitted, then all vehicles which has following this truck will
be forced to travel at 20km/hr.
 And slowly the platoon will form behind the truck and this platoon will be
moving at 20km/hr.
05/16/2024 134
60km/hr 20km/hr No vehicle
05/16/2024 135
 Since all vehicle in the platoon travelling at lower speed 20km/hr, the
concentration will increase and speed will be low. So this makes different
velocity as shown in figure below.
05/16/2024 136
See two demarcation line A-A and B-B

A-A ⇒ demarcation between the truck in free flow condition and the
platoon.
B-B ⇒ demarcation between the platoon condition and free flow
condition.
Free flow platoon platoon Free flow
If we state flow density curve as shown below;
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 Let us assume that the truck decides to exit after some time (in the next
intersection it takes a turn to and leave the highway).
 After the track exit the vehicle will slowly accelerate and they would travel at
the capacity of the roadway section and slowly they will reach to the normal
flow at 60km/hr.
 So we can observe three states;
1. Before entry of the truck
2. After entry of the truck
3. After exit of the truck
05/16/2024 140
 At point 3 (After exist of the truck) the flow will be at the capacity. So we
can see three states.
1. State 1 – Free flow, here all vehicles move at 60km/hr

2. State 2 – Platooning behind a shockwave at 20km/hr
3. State 3 – Flow with full section capacity
05/16/2024 141
So on flow density curve,
 The slope of 1-2 will be the velocity of shockwave which will be form in the
platoon
 The slope of 2-3 will be the velocity of shockwave which will be clearing the
platoon
 Slope of 1-2 forming the shockwaves
 Slope of 2-3 results in the clearing shockwaves
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ii. Shockwave and queue lengths due to a red phase at a signalized

intersection
 In case of Signalized intersection, all the vehicles are brought successively to
a halt position, from a flow q at a concentration k . In the region of the
halted vehicles, the flow is zero and the concentration is highest, almost
reaching the jammed condition.
 This region of halted flow and high concentration is propagated backward by
means of a shock wave, whose speed is given by the slope of the line like 1-3,
4-3 as shown in the below figure 1.2j.
 Figure 1.2k shows the traffic conditions that exist at an approach of a
signalized intersection when the signal indication is green then changes to
red at the end of the green phase (start of the red phase) and changes to
green again at the end of the red phase (start of the green phase).
05/16/2024 147
Types of Shock Waves

 Several types of shock waves can be formed, depending on the traffic
conditions that lead to their formation these include:
• Frontal stationary,
• Backward forming,
• Backward recovery,
• Rear stationary and forward recovery shock waves.
i. Frontal stationary shock waves are formed when the capacity suddenly
reduces to zero at an approach or set of lanes having the red indication at a
signalized intersection or when a highway is completely closed because of a
serious incident.
 In this case, a frontal stationary shock wave is formed at the stop line of the
approach or lanes that have a red signal indication. This type occurs at the
location where the capacity is reduced to zero.
05/16/2024 148
 For example, at a signalized intersection, the red signal indicates that traffic
on the approach or set of lanes cannot move across the intersection, which
implies that the capacity is temporarily reduced to zero resulting in the
formation of a frontal stationary shock wave as shown in Figure 1.2 j&k
below.
ii. Backward forming shock waves are formed when the capacity is reduced
below the demand flow rate resulting in the formation of a queue upstream
of the bottleneck.
 The shock wave moves upstream with its location at any time indicating the
end of the queue at that time. This may occur at the approach of a signalized
intersection when the signal indication is red, as shown in Figure 1.2 j&k , or
at a location of a highway where the number of lanes is reduced.
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Figure 1.2j. Shock Wave at Signalized Intersection
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Figure 1.2k Shock Wave at Signalized Intersection
05/16/2024 151
iii. Backward recovery shock waves are formed when the demand flow rate
becomes less than the capacity of the bottleneck or the restriction causing the
capacity reduction at the bottleneck is removed.
 For example, when the signals at an approach or set of lanes on a signalized
intersection change from red to green, the traffic flow restriction is removed,
and traffic on that approach or set of lanes is free to move across the
intersection, causing a backward recovery shock wave as shown in Figure
1.2 j&k.
 The intersection of the backward forming shock wave and the backward
recovery shock wave indicates the end of the queue shown as point T in
Figure 1.2k.
iv. Rear stationary and forward recovery shock waves are formed when demand
flow rate upstream of a bottleneck is first higher than the capacity of the
bottleneck and then the demand flow rate reduces to the capacity of the
bottleneck.
05/16/2024 152
 For example, consider a four-lane (one direction) highway that leads to a two-
lane tunnel in an urban area as shown in Figure 1.2l.
 During the off-peak period when the demand capacity is less than the tunnel
capacity, no shock wave is formed.
 However, when the demand capacity becomes higher than the tunnel capacity
during the peak hour, a backward forming shock wave is formed.
 This shock wave continues to move upstream of the bottleneck as long as the
demand flow is higher than the tunnel capacity as shown in Figure 1.2 l.
 However, as the end of the peak period approaches, the demand flow rate tends
to decrease until it is the same as the tunnel capacity. At this point, a rear
stationary shock wave is formed until the demand flow becomes less than the
tunnel capacity resulting in the formation of a forward recovery shock wave as
shown in Figure 1.2l.
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Figure 1.2l Shock Waves Due to a Bottleneck
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Question?
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Wachemo University

College of Engineering & Technology

Chapter 1: Traffic Engineering

 The Institute of Traffic Engineers, USA, has defined traffic engineering as “

 The road traffic is composed of different categories of vehicular traffic and

Elements of Traffic Engineering

1. Traffic studies and characteristics: involve measuring and quantifying

7. Integration of intelligent transportation system (ITS) technologies: refers to

Trafﬁc studies may be grouped into three main categories:

3. Dynamic trafﬁc studies: involve the collection of data under operational

1.1.1 Spot Speed Studies

Spot speed study is used to ?

Locations for Spot Speed Studies

The RTMS Radar-Based Trafﬁc Sensor

Figure 11ai RTMS Deployed in the Forward Looking Mode

Figure 1.1aii RTMS Deployed in the Side-ﬁre Mode

Table 1.1a Time and Speed Measurements

Group assignment -1 (10%)

1.1. 2 Volume Studies

a. Design of geometric characteristics, with particular reference to turning-radii

5. Vehicle Miles of Travel (VMT) is a measure of travel along a section of road.

Methods of Conducting Volume Counts

Manual counts are made when;

The main disadvantages of the manual count method are that

B. Automatic Method: Automatic counters can be classiﬁed into two general

1.1. 3 Travel time and delay studies

Deﬁnition of Terms Related to Time and Delay Studies

Methods for Conducting Travel Time and Delay Studies

iii. Moving-Vehicle Technique

4. Average number of vehicles traveling eastward when test vehicle is traveling

5. Average number of vehicles that overtake test vehicle while it is traveling

6. Average number of vehicles that overtake test vehicle while it is traveling

B. Methods Not Requiring a Test Vehicle

1.1.4 Parking Studies

Types of Parking Facilities

Meskel Square Underground Parking

On-Street Parking Facilities

1.2 Traffic Flow Theory

 An objective of traffic and transportation engineering is to control the traffic

 Traffic along reasonably crowded road, with no appreciable gaps between

Trafﬁc ﬂow theory study is used to ?

 Trafﬁc ﬂow theory used in design to determine

 Headway is the time gap between successive vehicles in a traffic stream

 Further continuous increase in density will then result in continuous reduction

Fig. 1.2a Flow versus density

Figure 1.2b Space mean speed versus volume

Figure 1.2c Space mean speed versus density

 The diagram shown in the figure 1.2d are

Fig. 1.2d Relationship b/n

1.2.3 Mathematical relationships describing traffic flow

Let a traffic flow(q) has a speed u,

 Additional r/ship b/n the three fundamental elements has to be

So far three models are developed

 Greenshield’s Model: Assumes a linear u-k r/ship and parabolic

a) Speed- Density Model

Free flow speed (uf)

 As more vehicles use the section of the highway,

b)Flow- Density Model

 In order to determine the density at which maximum

 Combining eqn (d) & eqn (f) gives,