3.

1 DATA STORAGE
Content

 3.1 Data types

 3.2 Storing Numbers
 3.3 Storing Text, Media, Image, Video
Objectives

After studying this chapter, the student should be able to:

 List five different data types used in a computer.

 Describe how integers are stored in a computer.

 Describe how reals are stored in a computer.

 Describe how text is stored in a computer using one of the various encoding systems.

 Describe how audio is stored in a computer using sampling, quantization and encoding.

 Describe how images are stored in a computer using raster and vector graphics schemes.

 Describe how video is stored in a computer as a representation of images changing in time.

1-DATA TYPES
1- Introduction

 Data today comes in different forms including numbers, text, audio, image and video.

Figure -3.1 Types of data types

2. Data Inside the Computer

 All data types are transformed into a uniform representation when they are stored in a computer and
transformed back to their original form when retrieved.

 This universal representation is called a bit pattern or a sequence of 0s and 1s.

Figure -3.2 A bit pattern

 Bits (binary digit) : The symbol 0 or 1 is called a bit (binary digit), the smallest unit of data that can be
stored in a computer.

 Bits patterns a sequence, or a string of bits. A bit patterns with 8 bits is called a byte
3. Storage of Different Data Types
2 - STORING NUMBERS
1. Introduction

 A number is changed to the binary system before being stored in the computer
memory, as described in Chapter 2. However, there are still two issues that need to
be handled:
 1. How to store the sign of the number.
 2. How to show the decimal point.
 There are several ways to handle the sign issue, discussed later in this chapter. For
the decimal point, computers use two different representations: fixed-point and
floating point.
 The first is used to store a number as an integer—without a fractional part, the
second is used to store a number as a real—with a fractional part.
2. Storing Integers

 Integers are whole numbers (numbers without a fractional part).

 For example, 134 and −125 are integers, whereas 134.23 and −0.235 are not.
 An integer can be thought of as a number in which the position of the decimal point
is fixed: the decimal point is to the right of the least significant (rightmost) bit.
 For this reason, fixed-point representation is used to store an integer, as shown
below.
Unsigned Representation

An unsigned integer is an integer that can never be negative and can take only 0 or
positive values. Its range is between 0 and positive infinity. An input device stores an
unsigned integer using the following steps:
 1. The integer is changed to binary.
 2. If the number of bits is less than n, 0s are added to the left

Example 3.1 Store 7 in an 8-bit memory location using unsigned representation.

Solution
 First change the integer to binary, (111)2.
 Add five 0s to make a total of eight bits, (00000111)2. The integer is stored in the
memory location.
Overflow in unsigned integers

 What happens if we try to store an integer that is larger than 24 − 1 = 15 in a

memory location that can only hold four bits.
Sign-and-Magnitude Representation

 In this method, the available range for unsigned integers (0 to 2n−1) is divided into two equal sub-
ranges. The first half represents positive integers, the second half, negative integers.

 Noted that there are two different representations for zero.

Overflow in sign-and-magnitude representation

 Both positive and negative overflow when storing an integer in sign-and-magnitude representation using
a 4-bit memory location.
Two’s Complementing

 The second operation is called two’s complementing or taking the two’s

complement of an integer in binary. This operation is done in two steps.
 First, we copy bits from the right until a 1 is copied; then, we flip the rest of the bits.
 Example 3.10 The following shows how we take the two’s complement of the integer
00110100.
Overflow in two’s complement representation
Storing Reals

 A real is a number with an integral part and a fractional part.

 For example, 23.7 is a real number—the integral part is 27 and the fractional part is 7/10.
 Although a fixed-point representation can be used to represent a real number, the result
may not be accurate or it may not have the required precision. The next two examples
explain why.

Example 3.1
In the decimal system, assume that we use a fixed-point representation with two
digits at the right of the decimal point and fourteen digits at the left of the decimal
point, for a total of sixteen digits.
The precision of a real number in this system is lost if we try to represent a decimal
number such as 1.00234: the system stores the number as 1.00.
Floating-Point Representation for a Real number

 The solution for maintaining accuracy or precision is to use floating-point representation.

 A floating point representation of a number is made up of three parts: a sign, a shifter and a fixed-point
number.

Example 3.2 The following shows the decimal number 7,425,000,000,000,000,000,000.00 in

scientific notation (floating-point representation).
3 - STORING TEXT, MEDIA, IMAGE,
VIDEO
3.1 Storing Text

 A section of text in any language is a sequence of symbols used to represent an idea in that language.

 For example, the English language uses 26 symbols (A, B, C,…, Z) to represent uppercase letters, 26
symbols (a, b, c, …, z) to represent lowercase letters, nine symbols (0, 1, 2, …, 9) to represent numeric
characters and symbols (., ?, :, ; , …, !) to represent punctuation.

 Other symbols such as blank, newline, and tab are used for text alignment and readability.

Representing symbols using bit patterns

 We can represent each symbol with a bit pattern. In other words, text such as “CATS”, which is made up
from four symbols, can be represented as four n-bit patterns, each pattern defining a single symbol.
Codes

 ASCII (American Standard Code of Information Interchange):

 ASCII: Using 7 bits for each symbol

 Extended ASCII: Using 8 bits for each symbol

 Using 32 bits to represent up to 232 symbols (including graphical and special symbols).

 Unicode is suitable for the communication in multiple languages. ASCII and extended ASCII are parts of
Unicode.

 Other Codes
3.2 Storing Audio

 Audio is a representation of sound or music. Audio is not countable. Audio is an example of analog
data. Even if we are able to measure all its values in a period of time, we cannot store these in the
computer’s memory, as we would need an infinite number of memory locations. Audio varies with time.

Figure -3.3 an example of analog data

Sampling

 If we cannot record all the values of an audio signal over an interval, we can record some of them.
Sampling means that we select only a finite number of points on the analog signal, measure their
values, and record them.

Figure -3.4 an example of sampling

Quantization

 The value measured for each sample is a real number. This means that we can store 40,000 real values
for each one second sample. However, it is simpler to use an unsigned integer (a bit pattern) for each
sample.

 Quantization refers to a process that rounds the value of a sample to the closest integer value.

 For example, if the real value is 17.2, it can be rounded down to 17: if the value is 17.7, it can be rounded
up to 18.
Encoding

 The quantized sample values need to be encoded as bit patterns. Some systems assign positive and
negative values to samples, some just shift the curve to the positive part and assign only positive values.

 If we call the bit depth or number of bits per sample B, the number of samples per second, S, we
need to store S × B bits for each second of audio.

 This product is sometimes referred to as bit rate, R. For example, if we use 40,000 samples per second
and 16 bits per each sample, the bit rate is
Standards for Sound Encoding

 Today the dominant standard for storing audio is MP3 (short for MPEG Layer 3).

 This standard is a modification of the MPEG (Motion Picture Experts Group) compression method
used for video. It uses 44100 samples per second and 16 bits per sample.

 The result is a signal with a bit rate of 705,600 bits per second, which is compressed using a compression
method that discards information that cannot be detected by the human ear. This is called lossy
compression, as opposed to lossless compression: see Chapter 15.
3.3 Storing Images

 Images are stored in computers using two different techniques: raster graphics and vector graphics

Raster graphics

 Raster graphics (or bitmap graphics) is used when we need to store an analog image such as a
photograph. A photograph consists of analog data, similar to audio information. The difference is that the
intensity (color) of data varies in space instead of in time.

 This means that data must be sampled. However, sampling in this case is normally called scanning. The
samples are called pixels (picture elements).

 Resolution : Just like audio sampling, in image scanning we need to decide how many pixels we should
record for each square or linear inch. The scanning rate in image processing is called resolution.

 Color Depth : The number of bits used to represent a pixel, its color depth, depends on how the
pixel’s color is handled by different encoding techniques. The perception of color is how our eyes respond
to a beam of light
Color

 True-Color One of the techniques used to

encode a pixel is called True- Color, which
uses 24 bits to encode a pixel

 Indexed Color The indexed color—or

palette color—scheme uses only a portion
of these colors
Standards for Image Encoding

 Several de facto standards for image encoding are in use.

 JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group) uses the True- Color scheme, but compresses the image to
reduce the number of bits (see Chapter 15).

 GIF (Graphic Interchange Format), on the other hand, uses the indexed color scheme.

 Softwares: Photoshop, PhotoImpact, Corel Painter

Vector Graphics

 Raster graphics has two disadvantages: the file size is big and rescaling is troublesome. To enlarge a
raster graphics image means enlarging the pixels, so the image looks ragged when it is enlarged. The
vector graphic image encoding method, however, does not store the bit patterns for each pixel.

 An image is decomposed into a combination of geometrical shapes such as lines, squares or circles.
For example, consider a circle of radius r.

 The main pieces of information a program needs to draw this circle are:

 1. The radius r and equation of a circle.

 2. The location of the center point of the circle.

 3. The stroke line style and color.

 4. The fill style and color.

 Standards for Vector Graphis EPS, WMF, AI, CDR

 Softwares: Illustrator, CorelDRAW, Flash

3.4 Storing Video

 Video is a representation of images (called frames) over time.

 A movie consists of a series of frames shown one after another to create the illusion of motion.

 In other words, video is the representation of information that changes in space (single image) and in
time (a series of images).
3.2 OPERATIONS ON
DATA
Subtitle
Content

 4.1 Logic
 4.2 Shift
 4.3 Arithmetic operations
Objectives

After studying this chapter, the student should be able to:

 List the three categories of operations performed on data.

 Perform unary and binary logic operations on bit patterns.

 Distinguish between logic and arithmetic shift operations.

 Perform addition and subtraction on integers when they are stored in two’s complement format.

 Perform addition and subtraction on integers when stored in sign-and-magnitude format.

 Perform addition and subtraction operations on reals stored in floating-point format.

1-LOGIC OPERATIONS
1. Introduction

 Logic operations refer to those operations that

apply the same basic operation on individual
bits of a pattern, or on two corresponding bits
in two patterns.

 A logic operation at the pattern level is n logic

operations, of the same type, at the bit level
where n is the number of bits in the pattern.

 A bit can take one of the two values: 0 or 1.

If we interpret 0 as the value false and 1 as
the value true,
2. The NOT operator

 The NOT operator is a unary operator: it takes only one input. The output bit is the complement of the
input.

Example 3.3 Use the NOT operator on the bit pattern 10011000.
Solution The solution is shown below. Note that the NOT operator changes every 0 to 1 and every 1 to 0.
3. The AND operator

 The AND operator is a binary operator: it takes two inputs. The output bit is 1 if both inputs are 1s and
the output is 0 in the other three cases.

Example 3.4 Use the AND operator on the bit patterns 10011000 and 00101010.
Solution The solution is shown below. Note that only one bit in the output is 1, where both corresponding
inputs are 1s.
4. The OR operator

 The OR operator is a binary operator: it takes two inputs. The output bit is 0 if both inputs are 0s and the
output is 1 in other three cases.

Example 3.5 Use the OR operator on the bit patterns 10011001 and 00101110.
Solution The solution is shown below. Note that only one bit in the output is 0, where both corresponding
inputs are 0s.
5. The XOR operator

 The XOR operator is a binary operator like the OR operator, with only one difference: the output is 0 if
both inputs are 1s.

Example 3.6 Use the XOR operator on the bit patterns 10011001 and 00101110.
Solution
The solution is shown below. Compare the output in this example with the one in Example 4.5. The only
difference is that when the two inputs are 1s, the result is 0 (the effect of exclusion).
2 - SHIFT OPERATIONS
1. Introduction

 Shift operations move the bits in a pattern, changing the positions of the bits. They
can move bits to the left or to the right.
 We can divide shift operations into two categories: logical shift operations and
arithmetic shift operations.
 Logical Shift Operations A logical shift operation is applied to a pattern that does
not represent a signed number.
 The reason is that these shift operations may change the sign of the number that is
defined by the leftmost bit in the pattern. We distinguish two types of logical shift
operations, as described below:
Logical shift
Logical circular shift (Rotate)
2. Logical Right/Left Shift Operations

Figure 3.5 Logical shift operations

Example 3.7
Use a logical left shift operation on the bit pattern 10011000.
Solution
The leftmost bit is lost and a 0 is inserted as the rightmost bit.
3. Logical Right/Left Circular Shift Operations

Figure 3.6 Logical shift operations

Example 3.8
Use a circular left shift operation on the bit pattern 10011000.
Solution
The solution is shown below. The leftmost bit is circulated and becomes the
rightmost bit.
4. Arithmetic Shift Operations
 Arithmetic shift operations assume that the bit pattern is a signed integer in two’s
complement format. Arithmetic right shift is used to divide an integer by two, while
arithmetic left shift is used to multiply an integer by two.

Figure 3.7 Arithmetic shift operations

Example 3.9
Use an arithmetic right shift operation on the bit pattern 10011001.
The pattern is an integer in two’s complement format.
Solution
The solution is shown below. The leftmost bit is retained and also
copied to its right neighbor bit.
3 - ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS
Introduction

Arithmetic operations involve adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing. We can

apply these operations to integers and floating-point numbers.
Arithmetic Operations on Integers
 All arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division
can be applied to integers. Although multiplication (division) of integers can be
implemented using repeated addition (subtraction), the procedure is not efficient.
Two’s Complement Integers
 When the subtraction operation is encountered, the computer simply changes it to
an addition operation, but makes two’s complement of the second number. In other
words:
Addition and subtraction of integers in two’s complement

Figure 3.8 Addition and subtraction of integers

Addition and subtraction of integers in two’s complement (cont)

Example 3.10
Two integers A and B are stored in two’s complement format.
Show how B is added to A.
A = (00010001)2 B = (00010110)2

Solution
The operation is adding. A is added to B and the result is stored in
R. (+17) + (+22) = (+39).
Addition and subtraction of integers in sign-and-magnitude

Figure 3.8 Addition and subtraction of integers in sign-and-magnitude

Addition and subtraction of integers in sign-and-magnitude
(cont)

Example 3.11
Two integers A and B are stored in sign-and-magnitude format.
Show how B is subtracted from A.
A = (1 1010001)2 B = (1 0010110)2
Solution
The operation is subtracting: SB = SB. S = AS XOR BS = 1, RM =
AM + (BM +1). Since there is an overflow, the value of RM is final.
The sign of R is the sign of A. (−81) − (−22) = (−59).
Arithmetic Operations on Reals

 All arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division can be applied to reals
stored in floating-point format.

 Multiplication of two reals involves multiplication of two integers in sign-and-magnitude representation.

 Division of two reals involves division of two integers in sign-and-magnitude representations

Addition and Subtraction of Reals

 Addition and subtraction of real numbers stored in floating-point numbers is reduced to addition and
subtraction of two integers stored in sign-and-magnitude (combination of sign and mantissa) after the
alignment of decimal points. Figure 4.8 shows a simplified version of the procedure (there are some
special cases that we have ignored).
Addition and subtraction of reals in floating-point format

Figure 3.9 Addition and subtraction of integers in floating-point format

Addition and subtraction of reals in floating-point format (cont)
Example 3.11
Show how the computer finds the result of (+5.75) +
(−7.0234375) = − 1.2734375.
Solution
These two numbers can be stored in floating-point format, as shown below:

De-normalization results in: