HND in Biomedical Engineering

Anatomy and Human Physiology

Respiratory System

1
Learning Objectives

 Structure and function of the human

respiratory system
 Ventilation and the process of gaseous
exchange
 Transport of respiratory gases
 Respiratory diseases and disorders
Respiration
The respiratory system consists
Upper Respiratory
o Nose
o Nasal Cavity
o Pharynx
Lower Respiratory
• Larynx
• Trachea
• Bronchi
• Lungs
The primary function of this system is to furnish oxygen for individual tissue cells, and to take away
the waste products and carbon dioxide produced by those same cells.
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The Nose

 The only externally visible part of the respiratory system

 Air enters the nose through the external nares (nostrils)
 The interior of the nose consists of a nasal cavity divided by a
nasal septum
Upper Respiratory Tract
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
 Olfactory receptors are located in the mucosa on the superior surface
 Lateral walls have projections called conchae
 Increases surface area
 Increases air turbulence within the nasal cavity
 The nasal cavity is separated from the oral cavity by the palate
 Anterior hard palate (bone)
 Posterior soft palate (muscle)
 The rest of the cavity is lined with respiratory mucosa
 Moistens air
 Traps incoming foreign particles
Paranasal Sinuses

 Cavities within bones surrounding the nasal cavity

 Frontal bone
 Sphenoid bone
 Ethmoid bone
 Maxillary bone
Paranasal Sinuses

 Function of the sinuses

 Lighten the skull
 Act as resonance chambers for speech
 Produce mucus that drains into the nasal cavity
 Pharynx (Throat)
 Muscular passage from nasal cavity to larynx
 Three regions of the pharynx
 Nasopharynx – superior region behind nasal cavity
 Oropharynx – middle region behind mouth
 Laryngopharynx – inferior region attached to larynx
 The oropharynx and laryngopharynx are common passageways for
air and food
Structures of the Pharynx

 Auditory tubes enter the nasopharynx

 Tonsils of the pharynx
 Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoids) in the nasopharynx
 Palatine tonsils in the oropharynx
 Lingual tonsils at the base of the tongue
Larynx (Voice Box)

 Routes air and food into proper channels

 Plays a role in speech
 Made of eight rigid hyaline cartilages and a spoon-
shaped flap of elastic cartilage (epiglottis)
 Vocal cords - vibrate with expelled air to create sound
(speech)
 Structures of the Larynx

 Thyroid cartilage
 Largest hyaline cartilage
 Protrudes anteriorly (Adam’s apple)
 Epiglottis
 Superior opening of the larynx
 Routes food to the larynx and air toward the trachea
 Glottis – opening between vocal cords
 Trachea (Windpipe)

 Connects larynx with bronchi

 Lined with ciliated mucosa
 Beat continuously in the opposite direction of incoming air
 Expel mucus loaded with dust and other debris away from lungs
 Walls are reinforced with C-shaped hyaline cartilage
Primary Bronchi
 Formed by division of the trachea
 Enters the lung at the hilus
(medial depression)
 Right bronchus is wider, shorter,
and straighter than left
 Bronchi subdivide into smaller
and smaller branches
 Lungs
 Occupy most of the thoracic cavity
 Apex is near the clavicle (superior portion)
 Each lung is divided into lobes by fissures
 Left lung – two lobes
 Right lung – three lobes
Lungs
Coverings of the Lungs

 Pulmonary (visceral) pleura covers the lung surface

 Parietal pleura lines the walls of the thoracic cavity
 Pleural fluid fills the area between layers of pleura to allow
gliding
Respiratory Tree Divisions

 Primary bronchi
 Secondary bronchi
 Tertiary bronchi
 Bronchioli
 Terminal bronchioli
Bronchioles
 Smallest branches of the bronchi
 All but the smallest branches have
reinforcing cartilage
 Terminal bronchioles end in alveoli
Respiratory Zone

 Structures
 Respiratory bronchioli
 Alveolar duct
 Alveoli
 Site of gas exchange
Alveoli
 Structure of alveoli
 Alveolar duct
 Alveolar sac
 Alveolus
 Gas exchange takes place within the alveoli in the respi-
ratory membrane
 Squamous epithelial lining alveolar walls
 Covered with pulmonary capillaries on external surfaces
Gas Exchange

 Gas crosses the respiratory membrane by diffusion

 Oxygen enters the blood
 Carbon dioxide enters the alveoli
 Macrophages add protection
 Surfactant coats gas-exposed alveolar surfaces
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Events of Respiration
 Pulmonary ventilation – moving air in and out of the lungs
 External respiration – gas exchange between pulmonary
blood and alveoli
 Respiratory gas transport – transport of oxygen and car-
bon dioxide via the bloodstream
 Internal respiration – gas exchange between blood and
tissue cells in systemic capillaries
 The Steps Involved in Respiration
 Pulmonary ventilation, or breathing, is the inhalation (inflow) and exhalation
(outflow) of air and involves the exchange of air between the atmosphere and the
alveoli of the lungs. Inhalation permits O2 to enter the lungs and exhalation
permits CO2 to leave the lungs.
 External (pulmonary) respiration is the exchange of gases between the alveoli
of the lungs and the blood in pulmonary capillaries across the respiratory
membrane. In this process, pulmonary capillary blood gains O2 and loses CO2.
 Internal (tissue) respiration is the exchange of gases between blood in systemic
capillaries and tissue cells. In this step the blood loses O2 and gains CO2. Within
cells, the metabolic reactions that consume O2 and give off CO2 during the
production of ATP are termed cellular respiration
Mechanics of Breathing -
(Pulmonary Ventilation)
 Mechanical process
 Depends on volume changes in the thoracic cavity
 Volume changes lead to pressure changes, which lead to
equalize pressure of flow of gases
 2 phases
 Inspiration – flow of air into lung
 Expiration – air leaving lung
Inspiration
 Diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract
 The size of the thoracic cavity increases
 External air is pulled into the lungs due to an
increase in intrapulmonary volume
 Expiration
 Passive process dependent up on natural lung elasticity
 As muscles relax, air is pushed out of the lungs
 Forced expiration can occur mostly by contracting inter-
nal intercostal muscles to depress the rib cage
Functions of Respiration
 Provides for gas exchange: intake of O2 for delivery to body cells and removal of
CO2 produced by body cells.
 Helps regulate blood pH.
 Contains receptors for sense of smell, filters inspired air, produces vocal sounds
(phonation), and excretes small amounts of water and heat.
Moving air in and out
 During inspiration (inhalation), the diaphragm
and intercostal muscles contract.
 During exhalation, these muscles relax. The
diaphragm domes upwards
Alveoli
 The alveoli are moist, thin-walled pockets
which are the site of gas exchange.
 A slightly oily surfactant prevents the
alveolar walls from collapsing and sticking
together.
What happens when you breathe in?
25% 25% 25% 25%
1. The rib muscles relax.
2. The diaphragm contracts.
3. Air leaves the alveoli.
4. Air moves between the chest wall and the lung.

1 2 3 4
 Alveolus
 The respiratory surface is made up of
the alveoli and capillary walls.
 The walls of the capillaries and the
alveoli may share the same
membrane.
Gas exchange
 Air entering the lungs contains
more oxygen and less carbon
dioxide than the blood that flows
in the pulmonary capillaries.
Carbon dioxide transport

 Carbon dioxide can dissolve in plasma,

and about 70% forms bicarbonate ions.
 Some carbon dioxide can bind to
hemoglobin for transport.
 Diffusion of O2 from lungs to blood

1. Active transport moves oxygen.

2. Hemoglobin takes up oxygen, keeping
plasma concentration low. 33% 33% 33%

3. Blood plasma is oxygen-rich

1 2 3
Pressure Differences in the Thoracic
Cavity
 Normal pressure within the pleural space is always nega-
tive (intrapleural pressure)
 Differences in lung and pleural space pressures keep lungs
from collapsing
Nonrespiratory Air Movements

 Caused by reflexes or voluntary actions

 Examples
 Cough and sneeze – clears lungs of debris
 Laughing
 Crying
 Yawn
 Hiccup
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities
 Normal breathing moves about 500 ml of air with each breath - tidal
volume (TV)
 Many factors that affect respiratory capacity
 A person’s size
 Sex
 Age
 Physical condition
 Residual volume of air – after exhalation, about 1200 ml of air remains
in the lungs
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities

 Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)

 Amount of air that can be taken in forcibly over the tidal volume
 Usually between 2100 and 3200 ml
 Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
 Amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled
 Approximately 1200 ml
 Residual volume
 Air remaining in lung after expiration
 About 1200 ml
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities
 Functional volume
 Air that actually reaches the respiratory zone
 Usually about 350 ml
 Respiratory capacities are measured with a spirometer
Respiratory Sounds

 Sounds are monitored with a stethoscope

 Bronchial sounds – produced by air rushing through
trachea and bronchi
 Vesicular breathing sounds – soft sounds of air filling
alveoli
External Respiration
 Oxygen movement into the blood
 The alveoli always has more oxygen than the blood
 Oxygen moves by diffusion towards the area of lower concentration
 Pulmonary capillary blood gains oxygen
 Carbon dioxide movement out of the blood
 Blood returning from tissues has higher concentrations of carbon
dioxide than air in the alveoli
 Pulmonary capillary blood gives up carbon dioxide
 Blood leaving the lungs is oxygen-rich and carbon dioxide-poor
Gas Transport in the Blood
 Oxygen transport in the blood
 Inside red blood cells attached to hemoglobin (oxyhe-
moglobin [HbO2])
 A small amount is carried dissolved in the plasma
 Carbon dioxide transport in the blood
 Most is transported in the plasma as bicarbonate ion
(HCO3–)
 A small amount is carried inside red blood cells on he-
moglobin, but at different binding sites than those of
oxygen
 Internal Respiration

 Exchange of gases between blood and body

cells
 An opposite reaction to what occurs in the
lungs
 Carbon dioxide diffuses out of tissue to blood
 Oxygen diffuses from blood into tissue
Internal Respiration
Neural Regulation of Respiration
 Activity of respiratory muscles is transmitted to the brain by the phrenic and in-
tercostal nerves
 Neural centers that control rate & depth are located in the medulla
 The pons appears to smooth out respiratory rate
 Normal respiratory rate (eupnea) is 12–15 min.
 Hypernia is increased respiratory rate often due to extra oxygen needs
Factors Influencing Respiratory
Rate and Depth
 Physical factors
 Increased body temperature
 Exercise
 Talking
 Coughing
 Emotional factors
 Chemical factors
 Carbon dioxide levels
 Level of carbon dioxide in the blood is the main regulatory chemical for
respiration
 Increased carbon dioxide increases respiration
 Changes in carbon dioxide act directly on the medulla oblongata
Factors Influencing Respiratory
Rate and Depth
 Chemical factors (continued)
 Oxygen levels
 Changes in oxygen concentration in the blood are detected by
chemoreceptors in the aorta and carotid artery
 Information is sent to the medulla oblongata
Effects of smoking
 Inhaled smoke contains:
 CO2, which affects the CO2
diffusion gradient.
 carcinogenic chemicals that
can trigger tumors.
 toxic nicotine, which
paralyzes cilia that normally
clean the lungs.
Emphysema
 Besides cancer, smoking can also lead to
emphysema. Alveoli become dry and brittle, and
eventually rupture.
 Both active and passive smoking (“second-hand”
smoke) can lead to can lead to lung problems.
Cystic Fibrosis

 Cystic fibrosis is one of the most

common inherited disorders in the
Caucasian population in the U.S.
 CF is caused by mutation of a single
gene, the CFTR gene, which controls
salt balance in the lungs
 Cystic Fibrosis
 A normal CFTR protein regulates the amount of chloride ions across the cell membrane of lung
cells.
 If the interior of the cell is too salty, water is drawn from lung mucus by osmosis, causing the mucus
to become thick and sticky.
 At this point there is no cure for CF, though there are therapies that have extended the lives of CF
patients, including lung transplants.
 Gene therapy may one day insert “good” CFTR genes into lung cells to make them operate
normally.
Thank You!!!
