Theories Concerning

Delinquency
 Learning Objectives
After the discussion the student will be able to:
 Comprehend different theories pertaining to
delinquency.
 Learn the foundations and sub-theories of
Biosocial Trait Theories.
 Understand the basics and derivatives of
Psychological Theories.
 Grasp the essence of Sociological Theories and
their diverse sub-theories.
 BIOSOCIALORTRAITTHEORIES

 Based on the view that both  BIOCHEMICAL – views that crime and
thought and behavior have delinquency are the result of diet, vitamin intake,
biological and social bases hormonal imbalance and other biological causes
 They offer a contemporary  NEUROLOGICAL –explains that crime and
explanation for the interaction of delinquency occur because the individual suffers
biogenic approaches - where from brain impairment or abnormality in the
genetics, evolution, and structure of the brain learning disabilities such as
biological functions influence attention deficit/hyperactive disorder. Brain
our behavior - and environmental dysfunction are related to anti-social behavior
stimuli in influencing human  GENETIC – explains that delinquent traits and
behavior and thought patterns. predisposition to criminality are inherited from
 Has three sub-theories: parents. Criminality of parents can predict
biochemical, neurological and delinquency of children supported by research on
genetics twin studies and adoption studies
 PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
views delinquency as a result of emotional and mental disturbance of the
individual. Contemporary explanation of the psychogenic approach. It has
three sub-theories: psychodynamic, behavioral and cognitive.
 PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY based on  BEHAVIORAL THEORY –
the psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud believes that individuals learn by
– delinquency is the result of the imbalance observing how people react to their
of the three components of personality: id, behavior – behavior is reinforced by
ego and superego – delinquency is the some positive reaction, and behavior
product of the abnormal personality structure is extinguished if punished –
formed in early life and which there after misbehavior of children if left
controls human behavior choices unchecked will persist until
adolescence.
 PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
COGNITIVE THEORY – views that delinquency is a result of the faulty
perception and analysis of data of an individual – believes that when an
individual make decisions, he engages in a sequence of cognitive thought
processes:

A. he first encodes the information so that it can be interpreted;

B.then, he searches for a proper response and decide upon the most
appropriate action;
C.finally, he acts on his decision - delinquency-prone adolescents
may have cognitive deficits and use information incorrectly when
they make decision
 SOCIOLOGICALTHEORIES

 views delinquency as a product of the different social

factors and dynamics – has four groups of theories which
in turn contain several sub-theories: social structure
theories, social process theories.
 SOCIOLOGICALTHEORIES
Social Structure Theory
 hold that delinquency is a function of a person’s place in the economic structure
 Social Structure Theory is a criminological perspective that explores how social structures and
institutions contribute to criminal behavior. It suggests that the distribution of wealth, power,
opportunity, and resources within a society plays a significant role in shaping criminal activity.
This theory posits that individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds or disadvantaged
communities have limited access to resources, which can lead to frustration, strain, and a higher
likelihood of engaging in criminal behavior.
 According to Social Structure Theory, people who experience socioeconomic deprivation are more
likely to be involved in criminal activities as a means of achieving economic gain or status. It
argues that crime rates are influenced by factors such as poverty, unemployment, lack of
education, and residential instability. This theory also highlights the importance of social
disorganization, referring to the breakdown of social bonds, weak community ties, and inadequate
social controls, which can contribute to higher crime rates in certain neighborhoods.
 Some of the sub-theories within Social Structure
Theory include:

Social Disorganization Theory

 Social Disorganization Theory is a criminological perspective that attributes high crime
rates and delinquency to the breakdown of social control in disorganized
neighborhoods or communities. Developed by sociologists Clifford Shaw and Henry
McKay in the early 20th century, this theory focuses on environmental factors and
community characteristics as root causes of deviant behavior.
 According to Social Disorganization Theory, certain neighborhoods or communities
experience social disorganization due to factors such as poverty, residential mobility,
ethnic diversity, and weak community ties. These conditions lead to a breakdown in
social control mechanisms and the formation of informal social networks that
encourage criminal behavior.
 Key concepts of Social Disorganization Theory
include:
1.Social Institutions: The theory emphasizes the importance of stable social
institutions, such as family, schools, and community organizations, in
maintaining social order and preventing crime.
2.Concentrated Disadvantage: The theory highlights the negative impact of
concentrated poverty and lack of resources in a community on crime rates.
3.Collective Efficacy: Collective efficacy refers to the shared belief among
community members that they can work together to achieve social control
and prevent crime.
4.Neighborhood Characteristics: Social Disorganization Theory suggests that
certain neighborhood characteristics, such as high rates of residential
mobility, ethnic heterogeneity, and social isolation, contribute to an
environment that fosters crime and delinquency .
 Some of the sub-theories within Social Structure
Theory include: strain theory by Robert K. Merton
(1938)
 Strain Theory is a criminological perspective that explains criminal behavior as a response to the
strain or frustration individuals experience when they are unable to achieve socially accepted goals
through legitimate means. This theory, developed by sociologist Robert K. Merton, suggests that
societal pressures and the discrepancy between cultural goals and the means to achieve them can
lead to deviant behavior.
 According to Strain Theory, individuals who experience strain and are unable to achieve their goals
through legitimate means may resort to criminal behavior as a means of obtaining success or relief
from their circumstances. This theory helps explain the relationship between social structure,
cultural values, and individual behavior, highlighting the role of societal pressures in shaping
deviant actions.
 Key concepts of Strain Theory include:
1.Cultural Goals: Societies establish certain goals, such as wealth, success, and status, which are
widely accepted as desirable and valuable.
2.Institutionalized Means: These are the socially accepted ways or means provided by society to
achieve the established goals, such as education, employment, and hard work.
3.Strain: The strain occurs when individuals experience a disconnection between their aspirations for
success and the means available to them. This strain can arise from various factors, including limited
opportunities, economic inequality, discrimination, or social barriers.
4.Modes of Adaptation: Merton identified five possible modes of adaptation to strain:
•Conformity: Individuals accept the cultural goals and means and strive to achieve them through
legitimate channels.
•Innovation: Individuals accept the goals but pursue alternative or illegal means to achieve them.
•Ritualism: Individuals abandon the pursuit of cultural goals but continue to adhere to socially
prescribed means.
•Retreatism: Individuals reject both cultural goals and the means to achieve them, often withdrawing
from society.
•Rebellion: Individuals reject the existing goals and means and seek to replace them with alternative
goals and means.
Some of the sub-theories within Social Structure Theory
include: Cultural Deviance Theory
by Richard A. Cloward and Lloyd E. Ohlin

 Cultural Deviance Theory, also known as Cultural Conflict Theory, is a criminological

perspective that focuses on how the formation of independent subcultures with unique
values and norms can lead to criminal behavior. This theory suggests that individuals who
belong to these subcultures adopt attitudes and behaviors that are in conflict with
mainstream cultural norms and values, resulting in higher rates of crime and delinquency.
 Cultural Deviance Theory emphasizes the influence of cultural factors on criminal
behavior, specifically in relation to lower socioeconomic status and marginalized
communities. It suggests that individuals within these communities may form subcultures
as a means of coping with their disadvantaged positions and develop their own value
systems, which can include deviant or criminal behaviors. Factors such as poverty, social
disorganization, and limited access to resources contribute to the formation of subcultures
with distinct norms and values that may conflict with those of the wider society.
Some of the sub-theories within Social Structure Theory
include:
Social Process Theory

 Social Process Theory is a criminological perspective

that focuses on the influence of social interactions,
socialization processes, and learning experiences in
the development of criminal behavior. This theory
posits that individuals become delinquent or engage
in criminal activities as a result of their social
experiences, interactions, and the acquisition of
deviant attitudes, values, and behaviors within their
social environments.
There are several sub-theories under the broader framework of Social Process
Theory in criminology. These sub-theories focus on different aspects of social
processes and interactions in relation to criminal behavior. Some of the key
sub-theories include:
 Differential Association Theory
 Social Learning Theory
 Social Bond Theory
 Labeling Theory
 Control Balance Theory
 Differential Association Theory
by Edwin Sutherland
 Differential Association Theory is a criminological theory developed by Edwin
Sutherland that explains how individuals acquire criminal behavior through interactions
and associations with others. According to this theory, criminal behavior is learned
through socialization processes, primarily within interpersonal groups or subcultures.
 Differential Association Theory suggests that criminal behavior is not a result of
individual characteristics or biological factors but rather a learned behavior acquired
through social interactions and associations. It posits that individuals become involved in
criminal acts when their exposure to definitions favorable to crime outweighs their
exposure to definitions favorable to conformity.
 This theory emphasizes the importance of social influence, socialization, and social
learning in the development of criminal behavior. It highlights the role of peers, family,
and other social networks in shaping an individual's propensity for criminal conduct.
 Key concepts of Differential Association Theory include:

 Definitions: Individuals learn attitudes, values, and beliefs about right and wrong through social
interactions. These definitions can be favorable or unfavorable to committing criminal acts.
 Differential Association: Individuals become involved in criminal behavior through their
associations and interactions with others. If their associations are primarily with individuals who
engage in criminal behavior and provide definitions favorable to crime, they are more likely to
adopt criminal behavior themselves.
 Frequency and Intensity: The frequency and intensity of interactions with individuals endorsing
criminal behavior play a role in the learning and adoption of criminal behavior. The more
frequently individuals are exposed to criminal behavior and the more intense the interaction, the
more likely they are to engage in criminal acts.
 Learning Mechanisms: Criminal behavior is acquired through various learning mechanisms,
including imitation, reinforcement, and modeling. Individuals observe others engaging in
criminal behavior, imitate the behavior, and experience reinforcement or punishment for their
own behavior.
 Control Balance Theory

 Control Balance Theory is a criminological perspective developed by Charles

R. Tittle. It focuses on the balance between control and the control a person
desires or needs in various social contexts. This theory suggests that an
individual's involvement in criminal behavior is influenced by the
discrepancy between the amount of control they have and the amount of
control they want.
 Control Balance Theory suggests that individuals strive to achieve and
maintain a balance between their desired level of control and the actual level
of control they have in their social environment. When there is an imbalance
between control and the control desired, individuals may be motivated to
engage in behavior that restores the balance, including engaging in criminal
or deviant acts.
 Social Learning Theory
 Social Learning Theory, developed by psychologist Albert Bandura,
posits that individuals learn behavior through observational learning,
imitation, and modeling. It emphasizes the influence of social
interactions, especially with significant others (such as parents,
teachers, or peers), in shaping behavior, attitudes, and values.
 Social Learning Theory suggests that behavior is not solely determined
by internal factors or external rewards and punishments but is heavily
influenced by observation and social interactions. It highlights the
importance of role models, social context, and the learning environment
in shaping behavior.
 Key concepts of Social Learning Theory include:
 Observational Learning: People learn by observing the behavior of others and the
consequences of their actions. Through observation, they acquire information about
appropriate behaviors and the potential outcomes associated with those behaviors.
 Imitation and Modeling: Individuals are more likely to imitate behavior that they observe
others engaging in, particularly if the model is seen as competent and the behavior is
rewarded or reinforced.
 Reinforcement: Consequences, both positive and negative, play a role in learning
behavior. When behavior is rewarded or reinforced, it is more likely to be imitated and
repeated. Conversely, when behavior is punished or receives negative consequences, it is
less likely to be imitated.
 Vicarious Reinforcement: Individuals can learn from the experiences and consequences
of others. Witnessing others being reinforced or punished for their behavior can shape an
individual's own behavior.
 Social Bond Theory
 Social Bond Theory, also known as Social Control Theory, was developed
by sociologist Travis Hirschi. This theory suggests that individuals are less
likely to engage in criminal behavior when they have strong social bonds
or attachments to conventional society. These bonds act as restraints that
prevent individuals from deviating from social norms and engaging in
delinquent or criminal activities.
 According to Social Bond Theory, poor social bonds or weak social control
can increase the likelihood of delinquency and criminal behavior. This
theory suggests that strengthening social bonds, such as through positive
relationships, meaningful commitments, involvement in pro-social
activities, and the internalization of societal norms and values, can reduce
the risk of criminal involvement.
 Key elements of Social Bond Theory include:

 Attachment: The strength of an individual's emotional ties and attachment to significant others, such as
family, friends, and community members. Strong attachment increases the stakes an individual has in
conforming to societal expectations, making them less likely to engage in criminal behavior and risk
damaging those relationships.
 Commitment: The extent to which an individual is committed to conventional life goals, such as
education, career, and future aspirations. Strong commitment provides individuals with a sense of
purpose and responsibility, reducing the likelihood of engaging in activities that could jeopardize their
goals.
 Involvement: The amount of time and energy individuals invest in conventional activities, such as
school, work, sports, or community organizations. Active involvement in pro-social activities acts as a
deterrent to criminal behavior by occupying individuals' time and providing them with positive outlets
for their energy.
 Belief: The belief in the moral validity and legitimacy of social rules, norms, and values. Strong belief
in societal standards reinforces conformity, as individuals feel morally obligated to abide by these
rules.
 Labeling Theory
 Labeling Theory, is a sociological perspective that focuses on the role of societal
reactions to behavior, particularly the labeling of individuals as deviant or criminal.
This theory suggests that the labeling process itself can contribute to further criminal
behavior and the formation of deviant identities.
 Labeling Theory asserts that societal reactions and the application of deviant labels can
contribute to the continuation and escalation of criminal behavior. It emphasizes that the
labeling process, rather than the inherent characteristics of individuals, plays a
significant role in shaping their identity and future behavior.
 The theory also raises concerns about the potential negative consequences of labeling
individuals, as it may reinforce deviant identities and restrict opportunities for
rehabilitation and reintegration. It underscores the importance of considering the
societal response to deviance and working towards more inclusive and constructive
approaches to addressing criminal behavior.
 Key concepts of Labeling Theory include:

 Labeling and Primary Deviance: According to Labeling Theory, individuals engage in primary
deviance, which refers to initial acts of rule-breaking behavior. These acts may be minor or
sporadic. However, when individuals are officially labeled and stigmatized as deviant by external
agents (such as law enforcement, institutions, or authority figures), their primary deviance can
become amplified and solidified.
 Secondary Deviance: Secondary deviance occurs when individuals internalize the deviant label
given to them and begin to identify as deviant. This process can lead to a continued pattern of
more significant and persistent deviant behavior as individuals adopt deviant roles and lifestyles.
 Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Labeling Theory emphasizes that once an individual is labeled as
deviant, it can create a self-fulfilling prophecy. They may start to conform to the deviant label and
engage in behavior that aligns with the expectations and stereotypes associated with that label.
 Deviant Careers: Labeling Theory suggests that the labeling process can lead individuals along a
path of increasingly serious deviance. The labeled individual may face limited opportunities for
conventional roles and become further involved in deviant subcultures or criminal networks.
 SOCIAL REACTION THEORY

 SOCIAL REACTION THEORY – Crime is caused by societal reactions to

behavior, which include exposure to the juvenile justice system. Once
children are labelled delinquent, they become delinquent (Tannenbaum,
1938).
 view delinquent acts and criminality as products of stigma and labeling
 Social Reaction Theories, also known as Societal Reaction Theories, refer to
criminological perspectives that focus on the social response to deviant or
criminal behavior. These theories examine how societal reactions,
particularly the application of labels or stigmatization, influence individuals
and contribute to their further involvement in deviance or crime.
Key concepts and ideas within Social Reaction Theories include:

 Labeling and Stigmatization: These theories emphasize the process of labeling individuals as
deviant or criminal. The application of these labels can lead to the individual internalizing the label
and adopting a deviant or criminal identity, which, in turn, can contribute to continued rule-breaking
behaviors.
 Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Social Reaction Theories posit that once individuals are labeled or
stigmatized, they may adjust their behavior to conform to the perceived expectations associated
with the label. Thus, the label itself can become a self-fulfilling prophecy, reinforcing the labeled
behavior.
 Secondary Deviance: Social Reaction Theories recognize that individuals engage in primary deviant
acts, but it is the societal reaction that can convert these initial acts into patterns of secondary
deviance. Secondary deviance refers to the ongoing and more serious involvement in deviant or
criminal activities that can occur after the individual internalizes the deviant label.
 Differential Treatment: These theories highlight how differential treatment by authorities,
institutions, and society can contribute to the development or reinforcement of criminal behavior.
Unequal treatment, such as being subjected to increased surveillance, discrimination, or limited
opportunities, can lead individuals to further engage in deviant or criminal acts.
 Social control Theory
 Social Control Theories are criminological perspectives that focus on the factors and
mechanisms that regulate and govern individual behavior to maintain social order and
prevent deviant or criminal acts. These theories examine the various forms of social control
and their impact on deterring individuals from engaging in rule-breaking behavior.
 The primary goal of Social Control Theories is to understand how social factors,
relationships, and institutions shape individuals' decision-making processes and deter them
from engaging in deviance or criminal behavior. These theories highlight the significance
of social bonds, internalized control, normative consensus, and socialization in promoting
conformity to societal rules and maintaining social order.

It is important to note that Social Control Theories do not explain the causes of crime but
rather focus on the mechanisms that prevent criminal behavior through effective social
control.
Key characteristics and concepts within Social Control Theories include:

1. Social Bonds: Social Control Theories emphasize the importance of social bonds or
attachments that individuals have to conventional societal institutions, such as family, school,
peers, and work. These bonds create emotional ties, commitments, involvement, and belief
systems that discourage individuals from violating social norms and values.
2.Internalized Conscience: Social Control Theories suggest that individuals develop an
internalized conscience or self-control that guides their behavior and helps them conform to
societal norms. This internal control mechanism reduces the inclination to engage in illegal or
deviant acts.
3.Normative Consensus: These theories emphasize the significance of normative consensus or
the general agreement within a society regarding acceptable behavior. The existence of shared
values, beliefs, and norms serves as a social control mechanism by shaping individual behavior
through societal expectations and sanctions.
4.Socialization and Social Learning: Social Control Theories recognize the role of socialization
processes and social learning in the formation of social bonds, self-control, and adherence to
social norms. Positive socialization experiences, such as reinforcement of pro-social behavior
and exposure to conventional role models, contribute to stronger social control.
Other theories related to juvenile delinquency
Differential Oppression Theory.
 According to the perspective proposed by John D. Hewitt and Robert Regoli, this
theory suggests that serious juvenile delinquency can be attributed to the oppression
experienced by children at the hands of adults, especially within the family context.
The theory argues that the maltreatment and mistreatment of children by adults
contribute to delinquent behavior and other problem behaviors.
 Differential Oppression Theory emphasizes that the perception and treatment of
children by adults shape their social roles and control their behavior. In this theory, it
is argued that adult perception of children forces them into socially defined and
controlled inferior positions. Specifically, the socially constructed role of juvenile
delinquency separates young offenders from adult offenders for the purpose of
treatment and control.
Other theories related to juvenile delinquency
General Strain Theory (GST)
 General Strain Theory (GST) is a criminological perspective originally proposed by
Robert Agnew in the early 1990s. It builds upon the foundation of strain theory by taking
into account a wider range of sources of strain beyond solely economic goals. Agnew
argues that individuals experience strain when they encounter negative events or
circumstances that they perceive as unjust, frustrating, or stressful.
 General Strain Theory highlights how the experience of strain, coupled with negative
emotions, can influence individuals' decision to engage in delinquent acts as a way of
managing or alleviating the strain they face.
Key components of General Strain Theory include:

 Strain: Strain refers to the negative experiences or circumstances that individuals encounter, such as
parental abuse, peer rejection, academic failure, unemployment, or discrimination. According to
GST, these strains can create pressure and generate negative emotions.
 Negative Emotions: Strain leads to the experience of negative emotions, such as anger, frustration,
or despair. These negative emotions are seen as a crucial factor in understanding the relationship
between strain and delinquent behavior.
 Coping Mechanisms: Individuals may employ various coping mechanisms in response to the strain
and negative emotions they experience. GST posits that delinquent behavior can be one such coping
mechanism, as it allows individuals to reduce or escape from negative emotions and reestablish a
positive emotional state.
 Types of Strain: GST distinguishes between three main categories of strain: (a) the failure to achieve
positively valued goals or desired outcomes, (b) the removal or loss of positively valued stimuli or
experiences, and (c) the presentation of negative or aversive stimuli or events. Each type of strain
can contribute to the likelihood of engaging in delinquent behavior.
 Other theories related to juvenile delinquency
Drift Theory/Neutralization Theory
 Drift Theory, also known as Neutralization Theory, was initially proposed by David Matza and Gresham Sykes
in their 1957 article, "Techniques of Neutralization: A Theory of Delinquency." This theory suggests that
juveniles generally have a moral obligation to obey the law and maintain a "bind" between themselves and
societal norms most of the time. However, moments can arise when this bind weakens or becomes temporarily
suspended, leading individuals to engage in delinquency or deviant behavior.
 According to the theory, delinquents often employ techniques of neutralization as a means of justifying their
actions and temporarily suspending their moral beliefs or guilt. Neutralization techniques are rationalizations or
persuasive strategies that individuals use to mitigate their sense of obligation to adhere to societal laws and
norms. These techniques allow delinquents to neutralize their guilt and justify their actions, enabling them to
drift away from their moral obligations and engage in deviant behavior.
 The theory suggests that delinquents engage in the drift, moving back and forth between conformity and
deviance based on their shifting moral binds to societal norms. While they generally maintain an adherence to
the law, moments arise when the bind weakens, enabling them to rationalize and justify deviant behavior.
It is important to note that drift theory does not seek to explain the initial causes of delinquency but rather focuses
on the mechanisms that allow individuals to temporarily suspend their moral obligations and engage in deviance.
The theory highlights the significance of the techniques of neutralization as a psychological process that
accompanies delinquent behavior within specific social contexts.
Common neutralization techniques described in the theory
include:
 Denial of Responsibility: Individuals rationalize their actions by claiming they had no
choice or were forced into committing the delinquent act.
 Denial of Injury: Delinquents minimize or reject the harm caused by their actions, often
by arguing that the victim deserved it or that the impact was insignificant.
 Denial of Victim: Individuals portray themselves as victims, suggesting that their
actions were in response to a perceived injustice or provocation.
 Condemnation of the Condemners: Delinquents criticize or reject the authorities or
social institutions that label their behavior as deviant, questioning their legitimacy or
authority.
 Appeal to Higher Loyalties: Delinquents prioritize loyalty to their peers, subculture, or
gang above societal norms, justifying their deviant actions based on these loyalties.
Other theories related to juvenile delinquency
Self-derogation Theory:
 Self-derogation theory, introduced by Kaplan, suggests that individuals are
motivated to maximize their self-esteem. According to this theory,
interactions within the family, school, and peer groups that devalue one's
sense of self can diminish the motivation to conform. When individuals
experience devaluing interactions or perceive their behavior as being self-
defacing, the motivation to conform to societal norms may decrease.
Key Concept:
 Interactions and behavior that devalue one's sense of self can minimize the
motivation to conform, potentially leading to engagement in delinquent
behavior.
Other theories related to juvenile delinquency
Self-Control Theory:

 Self-control theory posits that deviance results from individuals'

inability to effectively control their impulses and regulate their
behavior. It suggests that the absence of self-control, rather than
external factors like poverty or exposure to deviant peers, leads to
deviant behavior.
Key Concept:
Lack of self-control is the primary factor contributing to deviance rather
than external influences.
Other theories related to juvenile delinquency
Culture Deviance theory

 Culture Deviance Theory links delinquent behavior to the formation of

independent subcultures with distinct values that conflict with
mainstream culture. This theory argues that children learn deviant
behavior through exposure to these subcultural values and through
modeling the actions of others within the subculture.
Key Concept:
Delinquent acts stem from the influence of subcultures with deviant
values that contradict those of mainstream society .
Other theories related to juvenile delinquency
Rational Choice Theory

 Rational Choice Theory: Rational Choice Theory argues that

individuals engage in deviant behavior through a highly calculated
assessment of costs and benefits. Prospective deviants weigh the
potential gains against the risks involved and make decisions
accordingly.
Key Concept:
Deviant behavior stems from a rational decision-making process that
considers potential rewards and risks.
 Quiz
1. Which theory emphasizes the role of social bonds and attachments in preventing delinquent behavior?
2. According to Strain Theory, individuals engage in deviant behavior when they experience:
3. The theory that suggests individuals learn deviant behavior through exposure to subcultures with unique
values is called:
4. According to Self-Control Theory, deviance results from:
5. Rational Choice Theory argues that deviant behavior results from:
6. Differential Association Theory, developed by Edwin Sutherland, suggests that individuals learn deviant
behavior through:
7. Which theory proposes that deviance is a product of the conflict between culturally defined goals and the
means available to achieve them?
8. The theory that focuses on how social reactions to behavior contribute to an individual's continued
involvement in deviance or crime is called:
9. According to Routine Activities Theory, what three elements need to converge for a crime to take place?
10.Which theory suggests that delinquent acts are a result of neutralization techniques used to suspend moral
beliefs and justify deviant behavior?