Chapter 6

Data Analysis and Interpretation

I. Data analysis: Introduction

 Analysis of data involves summarizing the

collected data and organizing these in such a
manner that they will yield answers to the
research questions .
 Analysis of data means to make the raw data
meaningful or to draw some results from the
data after the proper treatment.
Process involved in Data Analysis

 The data analysis process in social

research involves three major steps:
1. Data Preparation/processing
2. Describing the data (Descriptive
Statistics)
3. Testing Hypotheses and Models (Inferential
Statistics)
Data Preparation/processing

 Data Preparation or processing includes:

a) Logging the data in/Recording
b) Checking the data for accuracy/editing
c) Coding the data
d) Classification
e) Tabulation
f) Graphic presentation
a. Logging/Recording the Data

 For the incoming data from different

sources you need to set up a procedure for
logging the information and keeping track of
it.
 This can be done with any standard
computerized database program (e.g.,
Microsoft Access).
 Or you can accomplish these using
standard statistical programs (e.g., SPSS,
SAS, Minitab, Data desk).
b. Checking the Data for Accuracy/ Editing

 Editing of data is a process of examining the

raw collected data to detect errors and
omissions and to correct these when possible.
 There are several questions you should ask as
part of this initial data screening:
 Are the responses legible/ readable?
 Are all important questions answered?
 Are the responses complete?
 Is all relevant contextual information included
(e.g., data, time, place, researcher)?
c. Coding

 Refers to the process of assigning numbers

or other symbols to answers so that
responses can be put into a limited number
of categories or classes.
 Coding is necessary for efficient analysis
and through it the several replies may be
reduced to small number of classes which
contain critical information requires for
analysis.
d. Classification

 Is the process of arranging data into

sequences and groups according to their
common characteristics, or separating them
into different but related parts.
 Is the scheme of breaking a category into a
set of parts, called classes, according to
some precisely defined differing
characteristics possessed by all the elements
of the category.
e. Tabulation

• Is the process of summarizing raw data and

displaying the same in compact form (i.e., in
the form of statistical tables) for further
analysis.
• Is an orderly arrangement of data in
columns and rows.
f. Graphic presentation of data

 Another way of presenting data is in form of

diagrams and graphs.
II. Statistical Analysis in Research

 Analysis means the computation of certain

indices or measures along with searching
for patterns of relationship that exist
among the data groups.
 Analysis may be classified as descriptive
analysis and inferential analysis.
Inferential Statistics

 We use inferential statistics to try to infer

from the sample data what the population
thinks.
 We use inferential statistics to make
inferences from our data to more general
conditions; we use descriptive statistics
simply to describe what's going on in our
data.
Descriptive Statistics

 In descriptive statistics we are simply

describing what is or what the data shows.
 Descriptive Statistics are used to describe
the basic features of the data in a study.
 They provide simple summaries about the
sample and the measures.
 With descriptive statistics you are simply
describing what is, what the data shows.
III. Interpretation of the research findings

 Interpretation refers to the task of drawing

inferences from the collected facts after an
analytical and/or experimental study.
 Interpretation is concerned with relationships
within the collected data, partially
overlapping analysis.
 It also extends beyond the data of the study
to include the results of other research,
theory and hypothesis.
Interpretation…cont’d…

 Interpretation is the device through which the

factors that seem to explain what has been
observed by researcher in the course of the
study can be better understood and it also
provides a theoretical conception which can
serve as a guide for further researches.
Interpretation…cont’d

 In general interpretation as two major

aspects
 The efforts to establish continuity in research
through linking the results of a given study
with those of another
 The establishment of some explanatory
concepts.
WRITING RESEARCH REPORTS
1.1 THE WRITE UP PROCESS

 Writing up is the process where the ‘world’ is

transformed into words.
 The ‘world’ refers to a research landscape
where the researcher spends a lengthy
period of time in observing and interviewing
people.
 In this process the researcher sees, feels,
and hears, the object of the study.
 Generally, write up is the process in which
the field experiences are transformed into a
text, a report, a monograph, or an article.
1.2 Contents of a Research Report

 Preliminary Pages: In its preliminary pages the

research report should carry:
– Title page
– Declaration
– Certificate
– Acknowledgements
– Table of Contents
– List of tables
– List of figures
– Acronyms
– Abstract
Main Body
 The main text provides the complete outline
of the research report along with all details.
 Title of the research study is repeated at the
top of the first page of the main text.
 Each main section of the report should begin
on a new page.
 The main text of the report should have the
following section:
Main body…cont’d…

– Chapter 1: Introduction
– Chapter 2: Review of the Literature
– Chapter 3: Research Methodology
– Chapter 4: Data Presentation, Analysis
and interpretation
– Chapter 5: Conclusions and
Recommendations
End Matter
• At the end of the report, appendices should be
enlisted in respect of all technical data such as
questionnaires, mathematical derivations and
the like ones.
• Bibliography of sources consulted should also
be given.
• Particularly the following elements should be
included:
 References
 Tables
 Figures
Preliminary pages

1. Title Page
 On separate lines and centered, the title
page has the title of the study, the author’s
name, the institutional affiliation, and date.
Title page…cont’d

 The title should not be too lengthy or too

short. It should provide sufficient information
about the nature of the study.
 The title should not be burdened by pompous
words. The language in the title should be
professional in nature but pedantic.
Preliminary pages…cont’d…

2. Abstract
 At the top of the page, centered, you should have
the word “Abstract.”
 It is a concise summary of the entire paper, including
the problem, major hypotheses, sample and
population, a brief description of the measures, the
name of the design or a short description , the major
results, and the major conclusions.
 Fits to one page, sometimes 250 words.
Main body

 Chapter1: Introduction/Background of the

Problem/study
 The first section in the body is the
introduction.
1.1. General Background

 Generally introduce the problem to the

readers.
 Historical perspective of the problem you
want to study.
Ch1 cont’d
1.2. Statement of the problem
 Having provided a broad introduction to the area
under study, now focus on issues relating to the
central theme, identify some of the gaps in the
existing body of knowledge.
 Identifies some of the main an unanswered
questions.
 It elaborates about the problem.
 it should be brief that focuses on some
conditions of incomplete knowledge or
understanding and the consequences of not
knowing or understanding.
Ch1 …cont’d

1.3. The objective of the Study

 In this section include a statement of both
your study’s general and specific objectives.
 The objective of the study should be clearly
stated and specific in nature.
1.3.1. General Objective of the study
 The main/general objective indicates the
central thrust of your study
Cont’d

1.3.2. Specific Objectives

 The specific objectives identify the specific
issues you have examined.
 Each specific objective should delineate only
one issue.
 Use action oriented verbs such as “to
determine, to find out, to ascertain” in
formulating specific objectives which should be
numerically listed.
Ch1. cont’d

1.4. The hypotheses

 If you have hypotheses tested, list them in this
section.
 In a study you may have as many hypotheses
as you want to test.
 However, it is not essential to have a
hypothesis in order to undertake a study. You
can conduct a perfectly satisfactory study
without formulating a hypothesis.
Ch1… cont’d

1.5. Scope and limitations of the study

 Some people ignore the matter, feeling that mentioning
limitations detracts from the impact of the study. Such
an attitude is unprofessional and borders on the
unethical part of the researcher.
 An even-headed approach is needed in which the
readers are aided in judging the validity of the results.
 The limitations in the present report may be further
investigated in future research.
Ch1…cont’d

1.6. Significance of the Study

 Justifies the need, importance and urgency
of the study; and as to how the results of
his/her study will be useful to the
beneficiaries.
Ch1… cont’d

1.7. Definition of terms and concepts

 The technical terms or words and phrases
having special meaning need to be defined
operationally.
Ch1…cont’d

1.8.The structure of the report

 As clearly as possible, state how your report
is organized.
Chapter 2

2.Literature Review
2.1. General Overview
2.2. Theoretical Framework
2.3. Conceptual Framework
Chapter 3

Methods/Methodolgy/Design
3.1. The study design
 Describe the study design you plan to use.
 Identify the strength and weaknesses of your
study design.
Ch1…cont’d…

3.2. Sources of Data

 Primary sources
 Secondary sources
Ch3… cont’d

3.3. Measurement procedures

 This section should contain a discussion of
your instrument and the details of how you
have operationalized your major variables.
 Justify your choice of research tool, highlighting
its strength and pointing out its weaknesses.
 Then outline the major segments of your
research tool and their relevance to the main
objectives of the study.
Ch3…cont’d

 If you have used a standard instrument,

briefly discuss the availability of evidence on
its reliability and validity. If you have adapted
or modified it in any way, describe and
explain the changes you had made.
 Ideally you should attach a copy of the
research instrument to your research report.
Ch3…Cont’d
3.4. Sampling
 Under this section of the proposal include the
following:
 The size of the sampling population (if known)
 Where (sample frame) the information is
obtained;
 The size of the sample you have selected, and
your reasons for choosing this size; and
 An explanation of the sampling technique you
have used in the selection of the sample (simple
random sampling, stratified random sampling,
quota sampling etc.).
Ch3…Cont’d

 3.5. Data Analysis

 Specify the procedures that will be used in
data analysis, and label them accurately.
 Communicate the researcher’s precise
intentions and reasons for these intentions to
the reader. This helps the researcher and the
reader evaluate the choices the researcher
made and procedures followed.
Chapter4: data Presentation, analysis and
Interpretation

 This is generally the longest section of the report.

 It is an organized presentation of the results.
 The objective of the findings is an exposition of what
the data says rather than drawing interpretations or
conclusions.
 In the discussion section, the researcher presents what
interpretations he/she can draw from the data collected
and gives the reader of the report an unambiguous
interpretation.
Chapter 5: Conclusion and Recommendation

 5.1. Conclusion
 5.2. Recommendation
Conclusion

 Here you should describe the conclusions you reach

(assuming you got the results described in the Results
section above).
 You should relate these conclusions back to the level of
the construct and the general problem area which you
described in the Introduction section.
 You should also discuss the overall strength of the
research proposed (e.g. general discussion of the strong
and weak validity areas)
 It should present some suggestions for possible future
research which would be sensible based on the results
of this work.
Recommendation

 This involves suggested future actions. In

academic research the recommendations are
likely to be for further study to test, deepen or
broaden understanding in the subject area.
 In applied research for decision making, the
recommendations will usually be for
managerial actions rather than research
actions.
References

 There are really two important issues to a

reference citation.
 First, there is the way you cite the item in the
text when you are discussing it.
 Second, there is the way you list the
complete reference in the reference section
in the back of the report
Appendix

 As an attachment, add any bulky but

important documents/information.
OTHER ISSUES

 Overall layout for writing the entire project paper

– Avoid grammatical, spelling, punctuation errors
– Ensure that the proposal is maintained in past tense
form and the limitation part is updated
– Margins: Left margin 1.25 inches; Right margin 1 inch;
Top 2inches if there is major heading and 1.25 in
every other page; bottom 1 inch
– Font type – times new roman
– Font size – 12 bold for titles and subtitles and normal
for others
Cont…
– Font color – black for all
– Line/character spacing – single/1.5 for all parts/text
writing and leave one line /between after each
title/subtitle/paragraph
– Single space for foot notes
– Repeat title of the project at the top of the page of the
first page of the main text and then follows the other
details on pages numbered consecutively; beginning
with the second page, each main section of the
report should be on a new page
====End====