Nepal Telecom Exam Preparation

(Level 7)

Dipak Kumar Nidhi

Basic Electricity
 Electric Circuit
• An Electric Circuit is a closed path for transmitting an electric current through
the medium of electrical and magnetic fields.

• The flow of electrons across the loop constitutes the electric current.

• Electrons enter the circuit through the ‘Source’ which can be a battery or a
generator.

• The source provides energy to the electrons, by setting up an electrical field which
provides the electromotive force (EMF).

• The electrons leave the circuit through the load, to the earth ground, thus
completing a closed path.

• The load or output can be any simple home appliance like television, lamp,
refrigerator, or can be a complex load.
 Electric Circuit
• A simple electric circuit consists of a source (such as a battery), wires as
conducting medium and a load (such as a light bulb).

• The battery provides required energy for flow of electrons, to the light bulb.
 Electric Circuit
Circuit Elements
• A circuit element is an idealised mathematical model of a two-terminal
electrical device that is completely characterized by its voltage-current relationship

• Circuit elements can be categorized as either

1. Active Circuit Elements
2. Passive circuit Elements
 Electric Circuit
Active Circuit Elements
• Active Elements are those which can generate and supply energy to the circuit.

• Active elements have the ability to electrically control electron flow (i.e. the flow
of charge)

• Active circuit elements can deliver a non-zero average power indefinitely

• Examples include batteries, generators, operational amplifiers and diodes.

• They are:
1. Independent Source
2. Dependent Source
 Electric Circuit
Independent Source
• Independent source are the sources, whose output value doesn’t depend upon the
circuit parameters like voltage and current

• They are of two types

a. Independent voltage source
b. Independent current source

Independent voltage source

• Independent voltage source has a voltage that is independent of other quantities in
a circuit i.e. not affected by any other quantity.

Independent current source

• Independent current source maintains a current which is unaffected by any other
quantities.
 Electric Circuit
Independent Source

Independent Voltage Source

Independent Current Source

 Electric Circuit
Dependent Source
• Dependent sources are the sources that change their output depending on other
parts of the circuit

• It’s just a mathematical representation

• Dependent sources are most helpful, BJT will be designed as a dependent

current source whose magnitude depends on the magnitude of the current
maintained into its controlling base terminal.

• OP-AMP can be describes as a voltage source dependent on the differential input

voltage between its input terminals
 Electric Circuit
Dependent Source
Depending upon the source it can be classified as

1. Voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS)

The source delivers the voltage as per the voltage of the dependent element. V = f
(Vx)

2. Voltage-controlled current source (VCCS)

The source delivers the currents as per the voltage of the dependent element. I = f
(Vx)

3. Current-controlled current source (CCCS)

The source delivers the current as per the current of the dependent elements. I = f
(ix)

4. Current-controlled voltage source (CCVS)

The source delivers the voltage as per the current of the dependent element. V = f
(ix)
 Electric Circuit
Dependent Source
 Electric Circuit
Dependent Source
 Electric Circuit
Passive circuit Elements

• A passive component is an electronic component which can only receive energy.

• It can either dissipate, absorb or store energy in an electric field or a magnetic

field.

• Passive elements do not need any form of electrical power to operate.

 Electric Circuit
Passive circuit Elements
Resistor:
• A resistor opposes the flow of current through it.

• For a linear circuit, Ohm’s law is applicable, which states that voltage across the
resistor is directly proportional to the current flowing through it, the proportional
constant being the resistance.

Inductor:
• An inductor stores energy in form of the electromagnetic field (magnetic field).

• The voltage across an inductor is proportional to the rate of change of current

flowing through it.

Capacitor:
• A capacitor stores energy in form of the electrostatic field.

• The voltage across a capacitor is proportional to the charge.

 Electric Circuit
Passive circuit Elements

Transformers
• Transformers are often used to raise voltage levels – but power is kept constant.

• When transformers step up (or step down), the power and energy remain the
same on the primary and secondary side.

• As energy is not actually being amplified – a transformer is classified as a

passive element.
 Electric Circuit
Passive circuit Elements
 Electric Circuit
Passive circuit Elements
 Electric Circuit
Series & parallel circuits
Series circuits
The basic idea of a “series” connection is that components are connected end-to-
end in a line to form a single path through which current can flow:

1. Voltage drops add to equal total voltage.

2. All components share the same (equal) current.
3. Resistances add to equal total resistance.
 Electric Circuit
Parallel circuits
• All components are connected across each other’s leads.
• In a purely parallel circuit, there are never more than two sets of electrically
common points, no matter how many components are connected.
• There are many paths for current flow, but only one voltage across all
components
 Electric Circuit
Parallel circuits
1. All components share the same (equal) voltage.
2. Branch currents add to equal total current.
3. Resistances diminish to equal total resistance.
 Electric Circuit
Series - Parallel Circuits
• If circuit components are series-connected in some parts and parallel in others,
we won’t be able to apply a single set of rules to every part of that circuit.

• Instead, we will have to identify which parts of that circuit are series and which
parts are parallel, then selectively apply series and parallel rules as necessary
to determine what is happening.
 Electric Circuit
Resistivity
• Resistivity is a property that describes the extent to which a material opposes
the flow of electric current through it.

• It is a property of the material itself (not the size or shape of the sample),
usually depends on temperature and other quantities such as pressure.

• The resistance of an object depends on its shape and the material of which it is
composed

• The resistance of a piece of material depends on its resistivity and also its size
and shape.
 Electric Circuit
Resistivity

• The resistance R of a wire with cross sectional area A and length L , made from
a material of resistivity ρ ('rho'), is given by the equation
R=ρ​
The unit of resistivity is the Ωm (ohm metre).

• Electrical conductivity σ ('sigma') is the reciprocal of resistivity and can be

written as
​σ=
The unit of conductivity is the Sm-1 (siemens per metre).
 Electric Circuit
Resistivity
• The resistance R of a cylinder of length L and cross-sectional area A is
R=ρ
Where, ρ = the resistivity of the material.​

• Values of ρ show that materials fall into three groups—conductors,

semiconductors, and insulators.

• Temperature affects resistivity; for relatively small temperature changes T ,

resistivity is
ρ = ρ0 (1+ T)

Where, ρ0 = the original resistivity

 = the temperature coefficient of resistivity.

• The resistance R of an object also varies with temperature:

R = R0 (1+ T)
Where, R0 = the original resistance
R = the resistance after the temperature change.
 Electric Circuit
Ohm's law

• This law states that the current in a circuit is directly proportional to the
potential difference across the circuit and inversely proportional to the
resistance in the circuit.

• Mathematically, this can be expressed as

V=IR

Ohm's law can be applied to an entire circuit or to individual parts of the circuit.
 Electric Circuit
Kirchhoff's node rule
• This rule states that the algebraic sum of all currents at a node (junction point) is
zero.

• Currents coming into a node are considered negative and currents leaving a node
are considered positive (and vice versa).

we have -I1 + I2 + I3 = 0 or I1 = I2 + I3

• This is a statement of the law of conservation of charge.

• Since no charge may be stored at a node and since charge cannot be created or
destroyed at the node,

• Hence, the total current entering a node must equal the total current out of the
node.
 Electric Circuit
Kirchhoff's loop rule
• This rule states that the algebraic sum of all the changes in potential (voltages)
around a loop must equal zero.

• A potential difference is considered negative if the potential is getting smaller

in the direction of the current flow.

Here, We have +V1 - V2 - V3 = 0 or V1 = V2 + V3

 Electric Circuit
Kirchhoff's loop rule

• This is a statement of the law of conservation of energy.

• Since potential differences correspond to energy changes and since energy

cannot be created or destroyed in ordinary electrical interactions, the energy
dissipated by the current as it passes through the circuit (V2 + V3) must equal
the energy given to it by the power supply (V1 ).
 Electric Circuit
Delta/Star Transformation
 Electric Circuit
Delta/Star and Star/Delta Transformation
 Electric Circuit
Maximum Power Transfer
 Electric Circuit
Single-phase and three-phase alternating current sources

• The AC power (alternating current) is a kind of electricity in which the flow

of current is frequently changing directions.

• At the beginning of the 1900 year, AC power supply is used for businesses as
well as homes.

• The system of the power supply is categorized into two type’s namely
1. Single phase power supply
2. Three phase power supply.

• For most industrial and businesses settings, three-phase supply is used to run
the high loads, whereas homes are generally supplied by a single phase,
because home appliances require less power.
 Electric Circuit
Phase in Electricity

• Generally, the phase in electricity is the current or the voltage among an

existing wire as well as a neutral cable.

• Phase means the distribution of load, if a single wire is used, an additional

load will occur on it & if three wires are used then loads will be separated
between them.

• This can be called as less power for 1-phase and more power for 3-phase.

• If it is a 1-phase system, it includes two wires as well as if it is a 3-phase

system, then it includes 3 wires (or) four wires
 Electric Circuit
Single Phase Supply
• In the field of electrical, single phase supply is the delivery of AC power by a
system in which all the supply voltages change in simultaneously.

• This type of power supply sharing is used when the loads (home appliances) ate
generally heat and lighting with some huge electric motors.

• A single phase system voltage achieves a peak value two times; the direct power
is not stable.
 Electric Circuit
Single Phase Supply
• A load with single-phase can be power-driven from a three-phase sharing
transformer in two techniques.

1. Connection between two phases

2. Connection among one phase and neutral.

• These two will give dissimilar voltages from a given power supply and
provides phase supply up to 230V.

• The applications of this supply mainly use for running the small home
appliances like air conditioners, fans, heater, etc.
 Electric Circuit
Single Phase Supply Benefits

• The design is less complex

• Design cost is less

• Most efficient AC power supply for up to 1000 watts

• Single Phase AC Power Supply is most competent for up to 1000 watts.

• Wide-range of application uses

 Electric Circuit
Single Phase Supply Benefits

• The design is less complex

• Design cost is less

• Most efficient AC power supply for up to 1000 watts

• Single Phase AC Power Supply is most competent for up to 1000 watts.

• Wide-range of application uses

 Electric Circuit
Single Phase Supply Applications

• This power supply is applicable for homes as well as businesses.

• Used to supply plenty of power for homes, as well as nonindustrial businesses.

• This power supply is sufficient to run the motors up to about 5 horsepower (hp).
 Electric Circuit
Three Phase Supply
• The three-phase power supply includes four wires such as one neutral as well as
three conductors.

• The three conductors are away from phase & space 120º distant from each other.

• Three phase power supplies are utilized as a single-phase AC power supply.

• For the small load, 1-phase AC power supply, as well as neutral, can be chosen
from the 3-phase AC power supply system.
.
 Electric Circuit
Three Phase Supply

• This supply is constant and not at all totally falls to zero.

• The power of this system can be illustrated in two configurations

1. Star connection
2. Delta connection. .
 Electric Circuit
Three Phase Supply
Star Connection

Delta Connection
 Electric Circuit
Three Phase Supply Benefits

• Copper Utilization Reduction

• Lessening of Security Risks for Employees

• Labor Treatment Costs

• The efficiency of the Conductor is Greater

• Facility to Run High Power Loads

 Electric Circuit
Three Phase Supply Applications

• These types of supplies are used in power grids, mobile towers, data centers,
aircraft, shipboard, unmanned systems, as well as other electronic loads larger
than 1000 watts.

• It is applicable to industrial, manufacturing, and large businesses.

• These are used in power-hungry and high-density data centers.

 Electric Circuit
Differences between Single Phase and Three Phase Supplies
 Electric Circuit
Cycle
• When a waveform reaches a complete set of positive and negative value it is
called one cycle.
• One cycle is corresponding to the angular measure of 360 deg
 Electric Circuit

Time Period
• The time it takes for one complete cycle of the AC signal is called the period

Phase
• The fraction of a period difference between the peaks expressed in degrees is
said to be the phase difference
 Electric Circuit
RMS value
• The RMS value is the effective value of a varying voltage or current.

• It is the equivalent steady DC (constant) value which gives the same effect.

• For example, a lamp connected to a 6V RMS AC supply will shine with the
same brightness when connected to a steady 6V DC supply.
 Electric Circuit
Alternating Current

• Alternating current is defined as the current whose magnitude changes with

time and also reverses the direction periodically.

• The general equation is given by,

Where, I0 is termed as peak value of an alternating current.

 Electric Circuit
Alternating Current
 Electric Circuit
Alternating Current
• The current changes at any instantaneous time

• If the current is passed through the electric circuit, it can be assumed to remain
constant for any small time dt.

• As current is passed for short time a small amount of charge is flown through
the circuit in time dt and it is represented as:

• If the current ‘I’ is indicated as a sine function then,

 Electric Circuit
Alternating Current
• At half the period of an alternating current, the amount of charge passed
through the circuit at time T/2 is given by:

• The mean value of the alternating current is given by,

 Electric Circuit
Alternating Current
• On equating equation (1) and equation (2), we get :

• What will happen to the mean square value of an alternating current when
it completes its full cycle?
The mean value of alternating current for completing the full cycle will be zero.
 Electric Circuit
RMS Value of Alternating Current
• RMS stands for Root-Mean-Square of instantaneous current values.

• The RMS value of alternating current is given by direct current which flows
through a resistance.

• The RMS value of AC is greater than the average value.

• The RMS value of sine current wave can be determined by the area covered in
half-cycle.

• This is applicable to all the waves which include sinusoidal, non-sinusoidal,

symmetrical, and asymmetrical.

• It is denoted by Irms or Iv.

 Electric Circuit
RMS Value of Alternating Current
• RMS stands for Root-Mean-Square of instantaneous current values.

• The RMS value of alternating current is given by direct current which flows
through a resistance.

• The RMS value of AC is greater than the average value.

• The RMS value of sine current wave can be determined by the area covered in
half-cycle.

• This is applicable to all the waves which include sinusoidal, non-sinusoidal,

symmetrical, and asymmetrical.

• It is denoted by Irms or Iv.

 Electric Circuit
RMS Value of AC Derivation
•

• The rms value of AC is represented as:

 Electric Circuit
RMS Value of AC Derivation

• By equating equation (3) and equation (4), we get:

 Electric Circuit
Three Phase A.C. Circuit
Star Connection (Y)

• It is also known as Three Phase Four Wire System (3-Phase 4 Wire)

• It is the most preferred system for AC power distribution

• Star Connection is obtained by connecting together similar ends of the three

coils, either “Starting” or “Finishing”. The other ends are joined to the line
wires.

• The common point is called the neutral or Star Point, which is represented
by N.
 Electric Circuit
Star Connection (Y)
 Electric Circuit
Star Connection (Y)
• For balance symmetrical load
IR + IY + IB = 0 ……………. Victorially

• Voltage between Line and Neutral (Star Point) is called Phase voltage or Star
voltage denoted by VPh .

• Voltage between two Lines is called Line to Line Voltage or Line Voltage
denoted by VL
 Electric Circuit
Star Connection (Y)
 Electric Circuit
Star Connection (Y)
• VRY = VR – VY …. (Vector Difference)

• VR = VY = VB = VPH

• Then,
VRY = 2 x VPH x Cos (60°/2)
= 2 x VPH x Cos 30°
= 2 x VPH x (√3/2) …… Since Cos 30° = √3/2

• Hence,
VRY = √3 VPH

• VRY = VYB = VBR is line voltages (VL) in Star Connection

• IR = IY = IB = IPH …. The phase current

 Electric Circuit
Star Connection (Y)

• Total True or Active Power = 3 Phase Power

• P = 3 x VPH x IPH x CosФ

• P = √3 x VL x IL x CosФ
 Electric Circuit
Delta Connection (Δ)

• It is also known as Three Phase Three Wire System (3-Phase 3 Wire)

• it is the most preferred system for AC power transmission

• In Delta connection, the three windings interconnection looks like a short circuit,
but this is not true, if the system is balanced, then the value of the algebraic
sum of all voltages around the mesh is zero in Delta connection.
 Electric Circuit
Delta Connection (Δ)

• In Delta configuration, at any instant, the EMF value of one phase is equal to the
resultant of the other two phases EMF values but in the opposite direction.
 Electric Circuit
Delta Connection (Δ)
• There is only one phase winding between two terminals (two wires).

• Hence, the voltage between (any pair of) two lines is equal to the phase
voltage of the phase winding which is connected between two lines

• Voltage between;
 Line 1 and Line 2 = VRY
 Line 2 and Line 3 = VYB
 Line 3 and Line 1 = VBR

And
• VRY leads VYB by 120°
• VYB leads VBR by 120°

• VRY = VYB = VBR = VL …………… (Line Voltage)

And
VL = VPH
 Electric Circuit
Delta Connection (Δ)
• There is only one phase winding between two terminals (two wires).

• Hence, the voltage between (any pair of) two lines is equal to the phase
voltage of the phase winding which is connected between two lines

• Voltage between;
 Line 1 and Line 2 = VRY
 Line 2 and Line 3 = VYB
 Line 3 and Line 1 = VBR

And
• VRY leads VYB by 120°
• VYB leads VBR by 120°

• VRY = VYB = VBR = VL …………… (Line Voltage)

And
VL = VPH
 Electric Circuit
Line Currents (IL) and Phase Currents (IPh) in Delta Connection
 Electric Circuit
Line Currents (IL) and Phase Currents (IPh) in Delta Connection

• Total current of each Line is equal to the vector difference between two phase
currents in Delta connection flowing through that line
 Current in Line 1= I1 = IR – IB
 Current in Line 2 =I2 = IY – IR
 Current in Line 3 =I3 = IB – IY

• IR = IY = IB = IPH …. The phase currents

• The current flowing in Line 1 would be

 Electric Circuit
Power in Delta Connection

• Power / Phase = VPH x IPH x CosФ

• Total Power = P = 3 x VPH x IPH x CosФ

IPH = IL /√3 ….. (From IL = √3 IPH)

VPH = VL

• P = √3 x VLx IL x CosФ
 Electric Circuit
Power factor

Active and Reactive components

Active components
• Active component is that which is in phase with the appoied voltage V
i.e. I Cos .
• It is known as ‘wattful’ component.

Reactive components
• Reactive component is that which is quadrature with V
i.e. I sin 
• It is known as ‘wattless’ or ‘idle’ component.
 Electric Circuit
Q factor (Quality)

Q Factor = = =

Peak Factor

• Peak Factor is defined as the ratio of maximum value to the R.M.S value of an
alternating quantity

• For the current varying sinusoidally, the peak factor is given as:
 Electric Circuit
Form Factor
• The ratio of the RMS value to the average value of an alternating quantity
(current or voltage) is called Form Factor
 Electric Circuit
Measurement of current
• A device or instrument that is used to measure the current is called the ammeter.
• The unit of the current is ampere
 Electric Circuit
Measurement of voltage
• A Voltmeter is a measuring instrument which measures the voltage between the
two nodes in an electric circuit
 Electric Circuit
Measurement of Power
• The wattmeter is connected in a circuit to measure power

Induction Wattmeter
 Electric Circuit
Measurement of Energy
• Electrical energy is the product of electrical power and time, and it is measured
in joules.

• It is defined as “1 joule of energy is equal to 1 watt of power is consumed for 1

second’’.

And

Power = Voltage X Current

 Electric Circuit
INSULATION RESISTANCE
• The insulation resistance is the resistance in ohms of wires, cables and electrical
equipment.

• It is important to guard against electric shocks and avoid equipment damage

from accidental discharges.

• The method of measuring the insulation resistance is to test and assess the state
of the isolation (head and body.)

• The megohmmeter is used to test insulation resistance

 Electric Circuit
Primary Cell and Secondary Cell
 Electric Circuit
Primary Cell and Secondary Cell
 Electric Circuit
Primary Cell
• The dry cell is a zinc-carbon battery.

• The zinc can serves as both a container and the negative electrode.

• The positive electrode is a rod made of carbon that is surrounded by a paste of

manganese(IV) oxide, zinc chloride, ammonium chloride, carbon powder, and a
small amount of water.

• At the anode, oxidation of zinc:

• At the cathode is more complicated, in part because more than one reaction
occurs

• The overall reaction is

 Electric Circuit
Primary Cell
• The dry cell is a zinc-carbon battery.

• The zinc can serves as both a container and the negative electrode.

• The positive electrode is a rod made of carbon that is surrounded by a paste of

manganese(IV) oxide, zinc chloride, ammonium chloride, carbon powder, and a
small amount of water.

• At the anode, oxidation of zinc:

• At the cathode is more complicated, in part because more than one reaction
occurs

• The overall reaction is

 Electric Circuit
Cells in series
• The emf of the battery is the sum of the individual emfs

• The current in each cell is the same and is identical with the current in the
entire arrangement

• The total internal resistance of the battery is the sum of the individual internal
resistances

Total emf of the battery = nE (for n no. of identical cells)

Total Internal resistance of the battery = nr
Total resistance of the circuit = nr + R
 Electric Circuit
Cells in Parallel
• Cells are said to be connected in parallel when they are joined positive
to positive and negative to negative such that current is divided between the cells.
• The emf of the battery is the same as that of a single cell.

• The current in the external circuit is divided equally among the cells.

• The reciprocal of the total internal resistance is the sum of the reciprocals of
the individual internal resistances.

Total emf of the battery = E

Total Internal resistance of the battery = r / n
Total resistance of the circuit = (r / n) + R
 Electric Circuit
Cells in Parallel
• Cells are said to be connected in parallel when they are joined positive
to positive and negative to negative such that current is divided between the cells.
• The emf of the battery is the same as that of a single cell.

• The current in the external circuit is divided equally among the cells.

• The reciprocal of the total internal resistance is the sum of the reciprocals of
the individual internal resistances.

Total emf of the battery = E

Total Internal resistance of the battery = r / n
Total resistance of the circuit = (r / n) + R
 Electric Circuit
Fundamentals of transformers
• A transformer is a device that:
1. Transfer electric power from one circuit to another

2. It does so without change of frequency

3. It accomplishes this by electromagnetic induction (mutual inductance)

 Electric Circuit
Fundamentals of transformers
• The transformer works on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction and mutual induction.

• There are usually two coils primary coil and secondary coil on the transformer
core.

• The core laminations are joined in the form of strips.

• The two coils have high mutual inductance.

• When an alternating current pass through the primary coil it creates a varying
magnetic flux.

• As per faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, this change in magnetic flux

induces an emf in the secondary coil which is linked to the core having a primary
coil, called mutual induction
 Electric Circuit
N1 = number of turns in primary.
N2 = number of turns in secondary.
Φm = maximum flux in weber (Wb).
T = time period. Time is taken for 1 cycle.

• The flux formed is a sinusoidal wave with value Φ m and - Φm

• So, flux reaches a maximum in one-quarter of a cycle. The time taken is equal to
T/4.
Average rate of change of flux = Φm/(T/4) = 4 f Φm
Where,
f = frequency
T = 1/f
• Induced emf per turn = rate of change of flux per turn

Form factor = rms value / average value

Rms value = 1.11 (4fΦm) = 4.44 fΦm [form factor of sine wave is 1.11]

RMS value of emf induced in winding = RMS value of emf per turn x no
 Electric Circuit
Primary Winding

• Rms value of induced emf = E1 = 4.44 fΦm * N1

Secondary winding:

• Rms value of induced emf = E2 = 4.44 fΦm * N2

This is the emf equation of the transformer.

For an ideal transformer at no load condition,

E1 = supply voltage on the primary winding.

 Electric Circuit
.

Voltage Transformation Ratio

K is called the voltage transformation ratio, which is a constant.

• Case1: if N2 > N1, K > 1 it is called a step-up transformer.

• Case 2: if N2 < N1, K < 1 it is called a step-down transformer.

 Electric Circuit
Generators
• According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, when a conductor moves
in a magnetic field, an emf is induced across the conductor.

• The value of induced emf across the conductor depends on the rate of change of
flux linkage with the conductor.
 Electric Circuit
Generators
• The direction of the induced emf in the conductor can be determined by
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule
 Electric Circuit
Generators
• During rotation, when one side of the loop comes in front of the magnetic north
pole, the instantaneous motion of the conductor will be upward hence according to
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule the induced emf will have inward direction.
 Electric Circuit
Generators
• At the same time, another side of the loop comes in front of the magnetic south
pole, the instantaneous motion of the conductor will be downward hence according
to Fleming’s Right Hand Rule the induced emf will have outward direction.
 Electric Circuit
Induction motor
• Aslo known as asynchronous motor

• It is an AC electric motor in which the electric current in the rotor needed to

produce torque is obtained by electromagnetic induction from the magnetic field of
the stator winding

• An induction motor has two main parts

1. Stator
2. Rotor

3. Stator
consisting of a steel frame that supports a hollow, cylindrical core
 Electric Circuit
2. Rotor
• The rotor is a rotating part of an induction motor.

• The rotor connects the mechanical load through the shaft.

 Electric Circuit
Principle of operation
• This rotating magnetic field cuts the rotor windings and produces an induced
voltage in the rotor windings

• Due to the fact that the rotor windings are short circuited, and induced current
flows in the rotor windings

• The rotor current produces another magnetic field

• A torque is produced as a result of the interaction of those two magnetic fields

Where ind = Induced torque

BR = Rotor magnetic flux densities
BS = Stator magnetic flux densities
 Electric Circuit
Principle of operation

• If rotor runs at the synchronous speed, which is the same speed of the rotating
magnetic field, then the rotor will appear stationary to the rotating magnetic field
and the rotating magnetic field will not cut the rotor.

• So, no induced current will flow in the rotor and no rotor magnetic flux will be
produced so no torque is generated and the rotor speed will fall below the
synchronous speed

• When the speed falls, the rotating magnetic field will cut the rotor windings and a
torque is produced

• So, the Induction motor will always run at a speed lower than the synchronous
speed
 Electric Circuit
Principle of operation
• The difference between the motor speed and the synchronous speed is called the
Slip

Where nslip = Slip speed

nsync = Speed of the magnetic field
nm = Mechanical shaft speed of the motor

Where s = the slip

 Electric Circuit
Principle of operation
• Notice that :
if the rotor runs at synchronous speed
s=0
if the rotor is stationary
s=1
• The frequency of the voltage induced in the rotor is given by

Where,
fr = the rotor frequency (Hz)
P = number of stator poles
n = slip speed (rpm)
 Electric Circuit
Fleming’s Left-Hand and Right-Hand Rule
 Electric Circuit
Difference Between Fleming’s Left-Hand and Right-Hand Rule
 Electric Circuit
Electrical shock hazards
• Electrically powered equipment can pose a significant hazard to workers,
particularly when mishandled or not maintained.

• Many electrical devices have high voltage or high power requirements, carrying
even more risk.

• Electric shock occurs when a body becomes part of an electrical current

• Examples of electric shock include:

 A person may come in contact with both conductors in a circuit.
 Touching a live wire and an electrical ground.
 A person may provide a path between an ungrounded conductor and the ground.
 A person may provide a path between the ground and a conducting material that
is in contact with an ungrounded conductor.
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The main hazards of working with electricity are:

1. Electric shock and burns from contact with live parts

2. Injury from exposure to arcing, fire from faulty electrical equipment or

installations

3. Explosion caused by unsuitable electrical apparatus or static electricity

igniting flammable vapors or dusts, for example in a spray paint booth

Electric shocks can also lead to other types of injury, for example by causing a fall
from ladders or scaffolds etc.
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The major factors upon which the effects of electrical shock depend are
1. The voltage

2. The time the current flows

3. The value of the current

4. The frequency of the network

5. The pathway of the current

6. The ability of the person to react

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• The duration of the fault must be limited by the action of protection relays and
devices.

• Table shows the different values of current and its effect on human body

* It is the average value and not meant to be same for everyone as it depends on
different factors
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• The value of the current through the body depends of the resistance of the skin.

• This resistance depends of several factors such as:

• Humid or wet skin
• Thickness of the skin at the contact point
• Psychological condition
• Weight
• Sex
• Age
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• The pathway of the current through the human body is unpredictable, and
pathways through the heart are the most dangerous

• When an electrical current flows through the physiological tissues there is an

interference with the electrical processes of the human body, namely with nerves,
muscles and the heart.

• The tissues are also subjected to heating and electrochemical reactions that
provoke the deterioration of the tissues.
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The hazardous of electrical shock are the following:
• Loose of motion control
• Respiratory arrest
• Pain
• Physical fatigue
• Ventricular fibrillation
• Cardiac arrest
• Burns
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Grounding and shielding
Grounding
• Grounding means to connect electrical equipment to a common reference ground
or earth

• The main reasons for caring grounding

1. Electrical safety: Safety grounding ensures that in the case of the degradation
of electrical isolation no live voltage is present on conductive parts that can
be touched by humans – thus avoiding the risk of electric shock.

2. Reduce interference: Signal grounding reduces voltage differences that might

cause noise emission or susceptibility problems

• The impedance of the grounding connection for each piece of equipment is

as low as possible in order to provide potential equalization of the connected
equipment.
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Shielding
• It is the process of protecting pieces of equipment from the effect of electrostatic
fields

• Shielding is used both for

1. Immunity (protecting against external interference)

2. Emission (preventing interference to be radiated).

• In frequency converter applications, shielded cables are used both for

• Power (motor cable and brake resistor cable) and

• Signals (analog reference signals, bus communication).

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Lightning protections

Lightning
• Lightning is an extremely high current discharge.

• It can occur between or within highly charged clouds or from a cloud to earth.

• These discharges can range from about 10 million to 100 million volts.

• Thunderstorms and lightning most often occur when the weather is hot and
humid
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Lightning strike effects

• Lightning strikes to earth usually seek out the path of least resistance.

• This will be the highest point in a landscape, such as the top of a mountain, a
tree, or a spire or tower.

• It is unpredictable where lightning will hit.

• If the discharge is uncontrolled or not discharged safely, there is a risk to the

structure and its contents.
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Risk assessment
• Dimensions and use of structure

• Types and characteristics of the equipment to be protected

• Construction details such as floor surfaces, roof types and wall materials
Relative location of the building to its neighbors' building and services
such as gas, water and electrical power

• Details and characteristics of all types of incoming services such as gas,

water and electrical power

• Types of cable used for power, telecommunications and data

• Earthing systems

• Risk of fire and the current fire protection

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Calculating the Lighting Protection Zone

Rolling sphere method

• The rolling sphere method is a means of identifying areas of a structure that need
lightning protection.

• An imaginary ball is rolled from the tip of the lightning conductor over the
structure.

• Every place the ball touches is vulnerable to a lightning strike.

• This is where a lightning conductor will be needed.

• The size of the ball varies, depending on the level of risk and protection
required; the higher the risk, the smaller the ball
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Calculating the Lighting Protection Zone

Protective angle method

• This is the method used in tower-only systems

• Mathematically simplified version of the rolling sphere method.

• The area from the high point of the lightning conductor‘s air termination to the
ground is modelled as a cone.

• The angle of the cone varies with the height of the structure and the class of
lightning protection system
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Elements of a protection system

1. Air termination system

• Where possible, air termination finials are installed on the higher parts of the
building, where lightning is most likely to hit.

• It may take the form of a single point or finial on a spire.

• When there is no spire, a perimeter tape or horizontal conductor can be used on

a parapet, coping or roof of a tower, with small air terminations at the corners
remote from significantly higher parts.
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Elements of a protection system

2. Down conductor

• The down conductor (a metal tape or rod) connects the air termination
system to the earth electrodes to carry the lightning current from the roof to the
ground.

• Its route to the ground should be as direct and as possible

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Elements of a protection system

3. Earth electrodes

• Earth electrodes are metal rods driven into the ground and connected via the
down tape system to the conductors and air terminators at the top of the building