MEAT PROCESSING

TECHNOLOGY

FOR SMALL- TO MEDIUM-

SCALE PRODUCERS

Gunter Heinz
Peter Hautzinger
Meat, fat and other edible carcass parts 1

MEAT, FAT AND OTHER EDIBLE CARCASS

PARTS
(Types, structure, biochemistry)

Sources of meat, fat and animal by-

products.
• Meat, fat and other carcass parts used
as raw materials for the manufacture of
processed meat products are mainly
derived from the domesticated animal
species cattle, pigs and poultry and to a
lesser extend from buffaloes, sheep and
goats.
• meat can be defined as “the muscle tissue
of slaughter animals”. The other important
tissue used for further processing is fat.
• Other edible parts of the slaughtered
animal and often used in further
processing are the internal organs1
(tongue, heart, liver, kidneys, lungs,
diaphragm, oesophagus, intestines) and
other slaughter by- products (blood, soft
tissues from feet, head).
 2 Meat, fat and other edible carcass parts

Muscle meat

Chemical composition of meat

Table 1: Content of water, protein, fat, ash (in percent) and calories
(approximate values for selected raw and processed food products)
Calories /
Product Water Protein Fat Ash
100g

Beef (lean) 75.0 22.3 1.8 1.2 116

Beef carcass 54.7 16.5 28.0 0.8 323
Pork (lean) 75.1 22.8 1.2 1.0 112
FRESH

Pork carcass 41.1 11.2 47.0 0.6 472

Veal (lean) 76.4 21.3 0.8 1.2 98
Chicken 75.0 22.8 0.9 1.2 105
Venison (deer) 75.7 21.4 1.3 1.2 103
Beef fat (subcutaneous) 4.0 1.5 94.0 0.1 854
Pork fat (back fat) 7.7 2.9 88.7 0.7 812
Beef, lean, fried 58.4 30.4 9.2 213
Pork, lean, fried 59.0 27.0 13.0 233
Lamb, lean, fried 60.9 28.5 9.5 207
Veal, lean, fried 61.7 31.4 5.6 186
PROCESSED

Raw-cooked sausage with coarse lean

68.5 16.4 11.1 170
particles (ham sausage)
Raw-cooked sausage finely
57.4 13.3 22.8 3.7 277
comminuted, no extender
Raw-cooked sausage
63.0 14.0 19.8 0.3 240
(frankfurter type)
Precooked-cooked sausage (liver
45.8 12.1 38.1 395
sausage)
Liver pate 53.9 16.2 25.6 1.8 307
Gelatinous meat mix (lean) 72.9 18.0 3.7 110
Raw-fermented sausage (Salami) 33.9 24.8 37.5 444
Milk (pasteurized) 87.6 3.2 3.5 63
Egg (boiled) 74.6 12.1 11.2 158
Bread (rye) 38.5 6.4 1.0 239
Potatoes (cooked) 78.0 1.9 0.1 72
 Meat, fat and other edible carcass parts 3

Histological structure of muscle tissue

The muscles are surrounded by a connective tissue

membrane, whose ends meet and merge into a
tendon attached to the skeleton

• (Each muscle includes several muscle fibre

bundles which are visible to the naked eye,
which contain a varying number (30-80) of
muscle fibres or muscle cells animals.

• Between the muscle fibre bundles are blood

vessels as well as connective tissue and fat
deposits. Each muscle fibre (muscle cell) is
surrounded by a cell membrane (sarcolemma)
• Inside the cell are sarcoplasma and a large
number of filaments, also called myofibrils

• The sarcoplasma is a soft protein structure and

contains amongst others the red muscle pigment
myoglobin.

• Myoglobin absorbs oxygen carried by the small

blood vessels and serves as an oxygen
reserve for contraction of the living muscle. In
meat the myoglobin provides the red meat colour
and plays a decisive role in the curing reaction

• The sarcoplasma constitutes about 30 percent of

the muscle cell. The sarcoplasmatic proteins are
water soluble.
4 Meat, fat and other edible carcass parts

Changes of pH

• Immediately post-mortem the

muscle contains a small amount of
muscle specific carbohydrate, called
glycogen (about 1%), most of
which is broken down to lactic acid
in the muscle meat in the first hours
(up to 12 hours) after slaughtering.
• This biochemical process serves an
important function in establishing
acidity (low pH) in the meat.
• The so-called glycolytic cycle starts
immediately after slaughter in the
muscle tissue, in which glycogen,
the main energy supplier to the
muscle, is broken down to lactic
acid.
• The build up of lactic acid in the
muscle produces an increase in its
acidity, as measured by the pH.
• The pH of normal muscle at
slaughter is about 7.0
• In a normal animal, the ultimate pH
falls to around pH 5.8-5.4.
• The typical taste and flavour of
meat is only achieved after sufficient
drop in pH down to 5.8 to 5.4.
• Meat with pH 5.6-6.0 is better for
products where good water binding
is required, as meat with higher pH
has a higher water binding
capacity.
• In products which lose water
during fabrication and ripening
meat with a lower pH (5.6–5.2) is
preferred as it has a lower water
binding capacity.

•
• In stress susceptible
animals pH may fall very
quickly to pH 5.8 – 5.6
while the carcass is still
warm.
• Found most often in pork.
• It can be recognized in the
meat as a pale colour, a
soft, almost mushy texture
and a very wet surface
(pale, soft, exudative =
PSE meat).
• PSE meat has lower
binding properties and
loses weight (water) rapidly
during cooking resulting in
a decrease in processing
dark, firm, dry (DFD) meat.

• Animals which have not

been fed for a period before
slaughter, or which have
been excessively fatigued
during transportation.
• Muscle glycogen has been
used up at point of slaughter
and pronounced acidity in
the meat cannot occur.
• The muscle does not fall
below pH 6.0.
• The high pH cause the
muscle proteins to retain
most of their bound water,
the muscle remain swollen
and they absorb most of the
light striking the meat
surface, giving a dark
appearance
• Dark meat has a
“sticky” texture. Less
moisture loss occurs
during curing and
cooking as a result of
the higher pH and the
greater water-holding
capacity but salt
penetration is restricted.

• DFD meat should not be

confused with that
resulting from mature
animals through the
presence of naturally
dark pigmentation.
 Meat, fat and other edible carcass parts 7

Meat colouring

• The red pigment that provides the characteristic colour

of meat is called myoglobin.
• Specifically, the myoglobin is the oxygen reserve for
the muscle cells
or muscle fibres.
• The greater the
myoglobin concentration,
the more
intense the colour of the
muscle. This difference
in myoglobin
concentration is the
reason why

Myoglobin concentration in muscles

also differs among animal species. Beef has
considerably more myoglobin than pork, veal or lamb, thus
giving beef a more intense
colour The maturity of the animal also influences pigment
intensity, with older animals having darker pigmentation. The
different myoglobin levels determine the curing capability of
meat.
Water holding capacity

The water holding

capacity (WHC) of meat is one
of the most important factors
of meat quality both from
the consumer and processor
point of view. Muscle proteins
are capable of holding many
water molecules to their
surface. As the muscle
tissue develops acidity
(decrease of pH)
• Water bound to the muscle
protein affects the eating and
processing quality of the meat.
• To obtain good yields during
further processing including
cooking, the water holding
capacity needs to be at a high
level (except for uncooked
fermented and/or dried
products which need to lose
water during processing

• Water holding capacity varies

greatly among the muscles of
the body and among animal
species.

• It was found that beef has the

greatest capacity to retain
water, followed by pork, with
poultry having the least.
Tenderness and flavour
• In these cases some types of
meat have to undergo a certain
ripening or ageing period before
cooking and consumption in
order to achieve the
necessary tenderness.
• In the fabrication of many
processed meat products the
toughness or tenderness of the
meat used is of minor
importance. Many meat products
are composed of comminuted
meat, a process where even
previously tough meat is made
palatable.
• Further processing of larger
pieces of meat results in good
chewing quality as these
products are cured and
fermented or cured and cooked,
which makes them tender.
• The taste of meat is
different for different
animal species.
• However, it may
sometimes be difficult
to distinguish the species
in certain food
preparations.
• Even small quantities of
fat, e.g. inter- and
intramuscular fat, may
imprint this typical smell
and taste on the meat
• Feed may also influence
the taste of meat
 Meat, fat and other edible carcass parts 9

• The typical desirable taste and odor

of meat is to a great extend the
result of the formation of lactic
acid (resulting from glycogen
breakdown in the muscle tissue)
and organic compounds like
aminoacids and di- and tripeptides
broken down from the meat
proteins.

• In particular the aged (“matured”)

meat obtains its characteristic taste
from the breakdown to such
substances. The “meaty” taste can
be further enhanced by adding
monosodium glutamate (MSG)
(0.05- 0.1%), which can reinforce
the meat taste of certain products

• MSG is a frequently used

ingredient in some meat dishes
and processed meat products in
particular in Asian countries.
 Animal fats

Fatty tissues are a natural occurring part of the meat

carcass. In the live organism, fatty tissues function as

 Energy deposits (store energy)

 Insulation against body temperature losses
 Protective padding in the skin and around
organs, especially kidney and heart.

Fatty tissue is composed of

cells, which like other tissue
cells, have cell membranes,
nucleus and cell matrix, the
latter significantly reduced to
provide space for storing
fat. Fats, in the form of

triglycerides, accumulate in the

fat cells. Well fed animals
Fig. 8: Fatty tissue (fat cells filled with
accumulate large amounts of fat lipids)
in the tissues. In periods of
starvation or exhaustion,
fat is gradually reduced
from the fat cells.

In the animal body there

are
subcutaneous fat deposits

Fig. 9: Intermuscular fat (a) (around

individual muscles) and intramuscular
fat (b) (inside muscle tissue)
• Fatty tissues from certain animal species are better
suited for meat product manufacture, fats from other
species less or not suited at all.
• This is mainly for sensory reasons as taste and
flavour of fat varies between animal species.
• Strong differences are also pronounced in older
animals, with the well known example of fat from old
sheep, which most consumers refuse
• However, this aspect is to some extent subjective as
consumers prefer the type of animal fat they are used
to.

• Availability also plays a role when fatty tissues are

used for processing.
• Pig fat is favoured in many regions for processing
purposes.
• It is often readily available but and has a suitable
tissue structure, composition and unpronounced taste
which make it readily usable.
• Fresh pork fat is almost odour- and flavourless.
Body fats from other animal species have good
processing potential for the manufacture of meat
products, but the addition of larger quantities is
limited by availability and some undesirable taste
properties.
 Pork
fat
• The subcutaneous fats from pigs
are the best suited and also most
widely used in meat processing, e.g.
backfat and belly
• These fatty tissues are easily
separated from other tissues and used
as separate ingredients for meat
products.
• Also the intermuscular fats
occurring in certain locations in muscle
tissues are used.
• They are either trimmed off or left
connected (e.g. intermuscular fat in
muscle tissue) and processed together
with the muscle meat.
• Subcutaneous and intermuscular fats
are also known as “body fats”.
 12 Meat, fat and other edible carcass parts

Beef fat

Beef fat is
considered less
suitable for
further processing
than pork fat, due to
its firmer
texture, yellowish
colour and more
intensive flavour. Fig. 12: All fatty tissues from the pork
When used carcass: Jowl fat, back fat (above); leafe
fat, belly and soft fat (below)

for processing,
preference is usually
given to brisket fat and
other body fats
preferably from
younger animals. Such
fats are used for specific
processed beef products
when pork fats are
excluded for socio-
cultural or religious Fig. 13: Brisket fat (a) on beef cut (brisket)
reasons

• Fat is the predominant tissue of the hump

together with stabilizing connective tissue and
muscle meat.
• The limiting factor for utilization of beef/buffalo
fat is its scarce availability
 Meat, fat and other edible carcass parts 13

Fat from chicken

• Chicken fat is neutral in

taste and well suited as
a fat component for
pure chicken products.

• Chicken fat adheres as

intermuscular fat to
chicken muscle tissue
and is processed
without separating it
from the lean meat.
The nutritional value of meat and meat products

a. Proteins
• The nutritional value of meat is essentially related
to the content of high quality protein. High quality
proteins are characterized by the content of
essential aminoacids which cannot be synthesized by our
body but
must be supplied through our food.
• In this respect the food prepared from meat has
an advantage over those of plant origin.
• There are vegetable proteins having a fairly high
biological value, for instance soy protein, the
biological value of which is about 65% of that of
meat.
• Soy protein concentrates are also very useful
ingredients in many processed meat products,
where they not only enhance the nutritional
value but primarily the water binding and fat
emulsifying capacity.

• The contractile proteins or myofibrillar proteins

are quantitatively the most important (some 65%)
and are also qualitatively important as they have
the highest biological value. Connective tissues
contain mainly collagen, which has a low
biological value. Elastin is completely
indigestible. Collagen is digestible but is
devoid of the essential aminoacid tryptophan.

• Blood proteins have a high content of tryptophan

but are nevertheless of a lower biological value than
meat due to their deficiency of the essential
aminoacid isoleucine.
b. Fats
• The major contribution of fat to the diet
is energy or calories. The fat content in
the animal carcass varies from 8 to about
20%.

• The fatty acid composition of the fatty

tissues is very different in different
locations.
• External fat (“body fat”) is much softer
than the internal fat surrounding organs
due to a higher content of unsaturated
fat in the external parts.
• Meat and meat products are relatively
good sources, but in some plant sources
such as cereals and seeds, linoleic acid is
usually present at about 20 times the
concentration found in meat.
• To avoid possible health risks from the
consumption of the meat, vulnerable
groups should reduce the animal fat
intake.
 Meat, fat and other edible carcass parts 15

• Meat and meat products are excellent

sources of the B-complex vitamins (see
table 2). Lean pork is the best food source
of Thiamine (vitamin B1) with more than 1
mg / 100 g as compared to lean beef,
which contains only about 1/10 of this
amount.
• The daily requirement for humans of this
rarely occurring vitamin is 1-1.5 mg.
Plant food has no vitamin B12, hence
meat is a good source of this vitamin for
children, as in their organisms deposits of
B12 have to be established. On the other
hand, meat is poor in the fat soluble
vitamins A, D, E, K and vitamin C
• However, internal organs, especially liver
and kidney generally contain an
appreciable percentage of vitamin A, C,
D, E and K. Most of the vitamins in meat
are relatively stable during cooking or
processing, although substantial amounts
may be leached out in the drippings or
broth.
• Thawing also contains an appreciable portion of
B-vitamins.
• This indicates the importance of conserving
these fractions by making use of them in some
way, for example through direct processing of
the frozen meat without previous thawing
(which is possible in modern meat processing
equipment).
• Thiamine (vitamin B1) and to a lesser extent
vitamin B6 are heat-labile. These vitamins are
partially destroyed during cooking and canning.

d. Minerals
• The mineral contents of meat include
calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium,
chlorine, magnesium with the level of each
of these minerals above 0.1%, and trace
elements such as iron, copper, zinc and
many others.

• Blood, liver, kidney, other red organs and to

a lesser extent lean meat, in particular beef
are good sources of iron.

• Iron in meat has a higher bio-availability,

better resorption and metabolism than iron
in plant products.
 PRINCIPLES OF MEAT PROCESSING
TECHNOLOGY

MEAT PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY

• Meat processing technology comprises the steps and

procedures in the manufacture of processed meat
products.

• Animal tissues, in the first place muscle meat and fat,

are the main ingredients, besides occasionally used
other tissues such as internal organs, skins and blood or
ingredients of plant origin.
• All processed meat products have been in one way or
another physically and/or chemically treated.

• These treatments go beyond the simple cutting of meat

into meat cuts or meat pieces with subsequent cooking
for meat dishes in order to make the meat palatable.
Meat processing involves a wide range of physical and
chemical treatment methods

 Cutting/chopping/comminuting (size reduction)

 Mixing/tumbling
 Salting/curing
 Utilization of spices/non-meat additives
 Stuffing/filling into casings or other containers
 Fermentation and drying
 Heat treatment
 Smoking

.
 18 Principles of meat processing technology

Meat grinder (Mincer)

A meat grinder is a
machine used to force
meat or meat trimmings
by means of a feeding
worm (auger) under
pressure through a
horizontally mounted
cylinder (barrel). At the
end of the barrel there is Fig. 19: Schematic drawing of grinder
a cutting system
consisting of star-shaped
knives rotating with the
feeding worm and
stationary perforated discs
(grinding plates).
20 Principles of meat processing technology

Bowl cutter (bowl chopper)

• The bowl cutter is the commonly used

meat chopping equipment designed to
produce small or very small (“finely
comminuted”) lean meat and fat particles.
• Bowl cutters consist of a horizontally
revolving bowl and a set of curved knives
rotating vertically on a horizontal axle at high
speeds of up to 5,000 rpm.
• In bigger models bowl and knife speed can be
regulated by changing gears. Bowl cutters
are equipped with a strong cover.
• Bowl cutters should be equipped with a
thermometer displaying the temperature of
the meat mixture in the bowl during
chopping.

Fig. 25: Small 20 litre bowl Fig. 26: Bowl cutter assembled with 6
cutter, single-phase motor knives
Principles of meat processing technology 21

Fig. 29: Bowl cutter–grinder combination

(twin model) with bowl cutter (60 litres
capacity) and meat grinder (114 mm
orifice diameter)
Fig. 27: Bowl cutter, schematic

Fig. 30: Vacuum cutter; lid can be

hermetically closed for vacuum treatment
of batter in the bowl
Fig. 28: Bowl cutter filled with
meat for chopping

Modern large scale bowl cutters may have devices to operate under a
vacuum (Fig. 30), which helps to improve colour and texture of the meat
products by keeping oxygen out of the meat mixes and avoid air pockets.
Cutter knives should be adjusted to a distance of 1-2 mm from the bowl
(Fig. 27) for optimal cutting (check the manufacturers recommendations
for each model). Most of the large and high-speed bowl cutters are
equipped with mechanical discharger devices for emptying the cutter.
The process of chopping in a bowl cutter is used for producing fine
comminuted products such as frankfurters, bologna, liver sausage etc.,
and enables processors to offer a much wider range of products.
Filling machine (“sausage stuffer”)

• These
machines
are used for
filling all
types of
meat batter
in containers
such as
casings, Fig. 31: Piston stuffer, schematic
glass jars,
cans etc.
• Modern filling machines for
larger operations are
designed as continuous
vacuum stuffers.
Clipping machine

• Clipping machines place

small aluminium sealing
clips on the sausage
ends and replace the
manual tying of sausages.
• They can be used for
artificial or natural casings.
Clipping machines can also
be connected to filling
machines
24 Principles of meat processing technology

Fig. 36: Arrangement of sausages for Fig. 37: Small-scale smokehouse

smoking inside smokehouse, (sawdust is placed on the
schematic smouldering tray)

Smokehouse

• In modern smokehouses (1), smoke generation takes

place outside the smoking chamber in special smoke
generators with electrical or gas ignition (4).
Separate smoke generators allow better control of
the quantity and temperature of the smoke produced.
The sawdustmaterial (3) is moved from the receptacle
to the burning zone (4) by a stirrer or shaker (3).
• Desirable smoke
components
• can be obtained in
the low temperature
range of thermal
destruction of saw
dust beginning at
around 230°C and
not exceeding 400°C.

• The smoke is
conveyed directly
from the generator
to the smoking
chamber (Fig. 38(1),
41) via a smoke
pipe (2). The
burned sawdust is
collected at the bottom
26 Principles of meat processing technology

Combined equipment

• Modern facilities can combine smoking, cooking and cooling

operations for meat products in one continuous process.
• By means of automatic stirring systems processing
parameters such as smoke generation, temperature (up to
100oC) and relative humidity (up to 100%) required to dry,
smoke, or steam-cook any type of product, can be pre-set.
• With additional refrigerated units installed in the
smokehouse, it is also possible to use it as a
fermenting/ripening room for the first crucial steps in production
of fermented sausages or raw ham products, where air
temperature and air humidity have to be accurately controlled.

Fig. 42: Smokehouse with

sausages ready for smoking

Brine injector

• This equipment serves for the injection of brine

into meat. Brine is water containing dissolved
salt and curing substances (nitrite) as well
as additives such as phosphates, spices, sugar,
carrageenan and/or soy proteins.
• The injection is done by introducing pointed
needles into the muscle tissue. Brine injection
is mainly used for the various types of ham,
bacon and other whole muscle products.
Principles of meat processing technology 27

• Before the injector is used again all hoses and

needles should be rinsed with warm water as
particles left in the system can block the needles
• Absolute cleanliness is necessary as microorganisms
remaining in the system would be injected deep into
the meat pieces during the operation.

Fig. 43: Brine injectors, pump driven, Fig. 44: Manual pump type injector
manually operated, with single needle (left), syringe type injector (right)
(left) and multi needle device (right)

Fig. 45: Multi-needle injector, schematic

a - Main brine supply pipe, b - Brine
distribution pipe, c - Injection needle,
d - Meat piece to be injected, e - Sliding Fig. 46: Multi-needle injector,
needle holder, f - Excess brine collection semi-automated
pan
28 Principles of meat processing technology

Tumbler or Massager

• Tumblers are used for the processing of meat

products such as whole-muscle or reconstituted
hams.
• Such machines resemble in principle a drum
concrete mixer. A rotating drum with steel paddles
inside slowly moves the meat pieces thus
causing a mechanical massaging effect.
• This mechanical process is assisted by the addition of
salt and phosphates to achieve equal brine
distribution and liberates muscular protein from the
meat tissue (protein extraction).
• The semi- liquid protein substances join the meat
pieces firmly together during later heat
treatment. For hygienic reasons it is important to
place the tumbler below 10oC to avoid excessive
microbial growth during lengthy tumbling times (more
then 4 hours or even over night).
• In specific cases it is recommended that the tumbler
should be operated refrigerated or inside a cold room
below -1°C, as these temperatures are best to
extract as much soluble protein as possible from
the muscle meat.
Fig. 47: Tumbler,
schematic
 Vacuum packaging machine

• For vacuum packaging the meat product has to

be placed into a vacuum bag. Air is removed
from the bag by means of the vacuum
packaging machine
and the bag then
sealed.
• Special vacuum
machinescan operate with
gas flushing

• mixture of gas is
injected after
evacuating the air.
Such protective gas
atmospheres inside
the product package
inhibit bacterial
growth and stabilize
the meat colour.
Mixer / blender

• Mixers are used to blend

meat and spices, or coarse
and finely chopped meat.
The machine generally
consists of a rectangular or
round bottom vessel
through which two
parallel shafts operate.
• Some mixers are designed
as vacuum mixers, as the
mixing under vacuum
(exclusion of oxygen) has
advantages for the
development of desirable
product colour and texture.
 30 Principles of meat processing technology

Emulsifying machine (colloid mill)

• The emulsifier serves for

the preparation of very
fine meat emulsions. Its
functional parts are a
perforated plate, attached
to which two edged
blades are rotating (rotor
blade).
• Next to the blades there
is a centrifugal pump
that forces the pre-ground
meat through
such as pig skin emulsions.
the perforated plate.

• Most emulsifiers are

vertical units. Compared
to the bowl cutter the
emulsifier operates at much
higher speed, producing a
finer emulsion-like mix.
• The emulsifier is also
perfectly suited to
produce semi-processed
products
Ice
flaker

• In these machinesice flakes

are continuously produced
from potable water.
• Ice is needed in meat
processing for some types
of meat products.
• Water, added in the form of
ice, is an important
ingredient in order to
enhance protein solution
and to keep the
temperature of the meat
batter low.
• Ice flakers with in-built UV-
water-disinfection device
are available for areas with
unsafe water supply.
• Frozen meat cutter

• The purpose of cutting frozen

meat blocks into smaller pieces is
to make frozen meat suitable for
immediate comminuting in grinders,
bowl cutters etc. without previous
thawing.
• There are two types of machines
for the cutting of frozen meat
blocks, working either with knives
cutting in vertical direction
(guillotine principle) or using
rotating drums with attached
sharp knives.