BONGA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AND

HUMANITIES
DEPARTMENT OF CIVICS AND ETHICAL
STUDIES
INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC AND CRITICAL THINKING
BY: TADELE TAFESSE (MA IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND
DIPLOMACY)
JULY - 2022
CHAPTER THREE: LOGIC AND LANGUAGE

Any good argument must be presented by clear, accurate and

understandable language. Correct reasoning can only be conveyed
through language.
The clarification and analysis of terms and statements is the
objective of philosophy in general and logic in particular.
In order to interpret, analyze, and evaluate arguments well, one
must pay close attention to language. Many errors in logic stem
from a careless or imprecise use of language, and many
misunderstandings about the nature of language. Hence, logic
requires proper use of terms and statements.
3.1: Philosophy of Language

What is Philosophy of Language?

Philosophy of Language is the reasoned inquiry into the
origins of language, nature of meaning, the usage and
cognition of language, and the relationship between language
and reality.
It is an important discipline in its own right, and hence, it
poses questions like:
"What is meaning?", "How does language refer to the real
world?",
"Is language learned or is it innate?", "How does the meaning
what is language (in general terms)?

According to semiotics, language is the mere manipulation

and use of symbols in order to draw attention to signified
content.
Semiotics is the study of sign processes in communication and
of how meaning is constructed and understood.
Therefore, language is a body of standard meanings of words
and the form of speech used as a means of expressing the
feeling, emotion, desire, thought etc in a consistent pattern of
communication.
Philosophy of language, however, should not be confused with
3.1.2: Some Philosophical Approaches to the Nature of
Meaning
what is meaning?
Most frequently, “Meaning" can be described as the content
carried by the words or signs exchanged by people when
communicating through language.
Arguably, there are two essentially different types of linguistic
meaning:
conceptual meaning (which refers to the definitions of words
themselves, and the features of those definitions, which can
be treated using semantic feature analysis) and
associative meaning (which refers to the individual mental
CONT

There are several approaches to the philosophical nature of

meaning. Among others, the following are the major ones:
1) Idea theories: these theories claim that meanings are
purely mental contents provoked by signs.
2) Truth-conditional theories: these theories hold meaning to
be the conditions under which an expression may be true or
false.
CONT
3) Use theories: these theories understand meaning to involve or be
related to speech acts and particular utterances, not the expressions
themselves.
4) Reference theories (or semantic externalism): these theories view
meaning to be equivalent to those things in the world that are actually
connected to signs.
5) Verificationist theories: these theories associate the meaning of a
sentence with its method of verification or falsification.
6) Pragmatist theories: these theories maintain that the meaning or
understanding of a sentence is determined by the consequences of its
application.
3.2: Logic and Meaning

We use language in many different ways.

It is the tool of communication and the means of expressing ideas.
It is the way of conveying information and evoking feelings.
In this lesson, we will learn the distinct functions of language, which
are relevant for the study of logic, along with their corresponding
meanings, and the intensional and extensional meaning of terms.
recognize the functions of language and we will be acquainted with the
two distinct uses of language which is relevant for the study of logic.
3.2.1: The Functions of Language

Ordinary language serves various functions in our day-to-day

life. These functions are almost unlimited. Thus, among other
things, individuals use language:
To tell stories,
to ask questions,
to guess at answers,
to form hypotheses,
to launch verbal assaults,
to tell jokes,
CONT
For our purpose, two linguistic functions are particularly
important:
(1) to convey information and (2) to express or evoke feelings.
Examples:
“Death penalty, which is legal in thirty-six states, has been
carried out most often in Georgia; however, since 1977 Texas
holds the record for the greatest number of executions.”
“Death penalty is a cruel and inhuman form of punishment in
which hapless prisoners are dragged from their cells and
summarily slaughtered only to satiate the bloodlust of a
CONT

Terminology that conveys information is said to have cognitive

meaning, and terminology that expresses or evokes feelings is said to
have emotive meaning.
Thus, in Example 1 the words ‘‘legal,’’ ‘‘thirty-six,’’ ‘‘most often,’’
‘‘Georgia,’’ ‘‘record,’’ etc. have primarily a cognitive meaning, while in
Example 2 the words ‘‘cruel,’’ ‘‘inhuman,’’ ‘‘hapless,’’ ‘‘dragged,’’
‘‘slaughtered,’’ ‘‘bloodlust,’’ and ‘‘vengeful’’ have a strong emotive
meaning. Of course, these latter words have cognitive meaning as well.
‘‘Cruel’’ means tending to hurt others, ‘‘inhuman’’ means inappropriate
for humans, ‘‘hapless’’ means unfortunate, and so on.
CONT

The emotively charged statement about the death penalty

illustrates two important Points:
First, statements of this sort usually have both cognitive
meaning and emotive meaning. Therefore, since logic is
concerned chiefly with cognitive meaning, it is important that
we be able to distinguish and disengage the cognitive meaning
of such statements from the emotive meaning.
CONT
Second, part of the cognitive meaning of such statements is a value claim.
A value claim is a claim that something is good, bad, right, wrong, or
better, worse, more important or less important than some other thing.
For example, the statement about the death penalty asserts the value
claim that the death penalty is wrong or immoral. Such value claims are
often the most important part of the cognitive meaning of emotive
statements.
Thus, for the purposes of logic, it is important that we be able to
disengage the value claims of emotively charged statements from the
emotive meaning and treat these claims as separate statements.
3.2.1.1 Emotive Terminologies in Arguments

In arguments, emotive terminology accomplishes basically the same

function as emotive terminology in statements.
It allows the arguer to make value claims about the subject matter of
the argument without providing evidence, and it gives the argument a
kind of steamroller quality by which it tends to crush potential counter
arguments before the reader or listener has a chance to think of them.
This steamroller quality also tends to paralyze the logical thought
processes of readers or listeners so that they are not able to see
illogical arguments in their true light.
These effects of emotive terminology can be avoided if the reader or
listener will disengage the value claims and other cognitive meanings
from the emotive meaning of the language and re-express them as
3.2.1.2 Deficiency of Cognitive Meanings

A. Vagueness
• A linguistic expression is said to be vague if there are
borderline cases in which it is impossible to tell if the
expression applies or does not apply.
• Vague expressions often allow for a continuous range of
interpretations. The meaning is hazy, obscure, and imprecise.
• For example, words such as ‘‘love,’’ ‘‘happiness, “peace,’’
‘‘excessive,’’ ‘‘fresh,’’ ‘‘rich,’’ ‘‘poor,’’ ‘‘normal,’’
‘‘conservative,’’ and ‘‘polluted’’ are vague.
• Vagueness can also affect entire statements. Such vagueness
CONT

• For example, suppose someone were to say, ‘‘Today our job situation
is more transparent.’’ First, what is the meaning of ‘‘job situation’’?
Does it refer to finding a job, keeping a job, filling a job, completing a
job, or bidding on a job? And what exactly does it mean for a job
situation to be ‘‘transparent’’? Does it mean that the job is more
easily perceived or comprehended? That the job is more easily
completed? That we can anticipate our future job needs more
clearly? Or what else?
• Not all cases of vagueness, however, are problematic. To describe an
acquaintance as ‘‘tall’’ or ‘‘thin’’ often causes no trouble in ordinary
conversation. Indeed, it may be overly burdensome to describe this
person in more precise language. Trouble arises only when the
B. Ambiguity

• An expression is said to be ambiguous when it can be

interpreted as having more than one clearly distinct meaning
in a given context.
• For example, words such as ‘‘light,’’ ‘‘proper,’’ ‘‘critical,’’
‘‘stress,’’ ‘‘mad,’’ ‘‘inflate,’’ ‘‘chest,’’ ‘‘bank,’’ ‘‘sound,’’ and
‘‘race’’ can be used ambiguously.
• Thus, if one were to describe a beer as a light pilsner, does
this mean that the beer is light in color, light in calories, or
light in taste?
• ambiguity can also affect entire statements. Such ambiguity
The Difference Between Vagueness and Ambiguity

• vague terminology allows for a relatively continuous range of

interpretations, whereas ambiguous terminology allows for
multiple discrete interpretations.
• In a vague expression there is a blur of meaning, whereas in
an ambiguous expression there is a mix-up of otherwise clear
meanings.
• However, there are many forms of expression that are
ambiguous in one context and vague in another.
For example, the word ‘‘slow’’ in one context could mean
either mentally retarded or physically slow, but when the word
3.2.2 Forms of Disputes in Logic

• The role of vagueness and ambiguity in arguments may be

conveniently explored in the context of conflicting arguments
between individuals. Such conflicts are called disputes. Now
let us see the two kinds of disputes in logic.
• In order to understand these disputes better, we need to
consider the following examples:
Example - 1

• Kassa: Mrs. Zenebech abuses her children. And how do I

know that? I saw her spank one of her kids the other day
after the kid misbehaved.
• Jemal: Don’t be silly. Kids need discipline, and by disciplining
her children,
• Mrs. Zenebech is showing that she loves them.
• Here, the problem surrounds the vagueness of the words
‘‘abuse’’ and ‘‘discipline.’’ When does discipline become
abuse? The line separating the two is hazy at best, but unless
it is clarified, disputes of this sort will never be resolved.
Example - 2

• Mullu: I’m afraid that Dagim is guilty of cheating in the exam. Last night he
confessed to me that he was sate closer to Tsedale, who is the most excellent
student in our class, and takes almost all answers from her.
• Worku: No, you couldn’t be more mistaken. In this country, no one is guilty until
proven so in a court of law, and Dagim has not yet even been accused of
anything.
• In this example, the dispute arises over the ambiguity of the word ‘‘guilty.’’
Mullu is using the word in the moral sense. Given that Dagim has admitted to
cheating in the exam, it is very likely that he did indeed cheated in the exam
and therefore is guilty of cheating in the exam in the moral sense of the term.
Worku, on the other hand, is using the word in the legal sense. Because Dagim
has not been convicted in a court of law, he is not legally guilty of anything.
CONT

• Disputes that arise over the meaning of language are called verbal
disputes.
• These are disputes in which the apparent conflict is not genuine and
can be resolved by coming to agreement about how some words or
phrases is to be understood. But not all disputes are of this sort. Some
disputes arise over a disagreement about facts, and these are called
factual disputes.
Example - 3

• Debebe: I know that Fisseha stole a computer from the old school
house. Aberash told me that she saw Fisseha do it.
• Maru: That’s ridiculous! Fisseha has never stolen anything in his life.
Aberash hates Fisseha, and she is trying to pin the theft on him only
to shield her criminal boyfriend.
• Here, the dispute centers on the factual issues of whether Aberash
told the truth and whether Fisseha stole the computer.
• Disputes arisen because of the truth or falsity of claims are factual
disputes. In dealing with disputes, the first question is whether the
dispute is factual, verbal, or some combination of the two. If the
dispute is verbal, then the second question to be answered is whether
the dispute concerns ambiguity or vagueness.
3.2.3 The Intension and Extension of Terms
• A term is any word or arrangement of words that may serve as the
subject of a statement. Terms consist of proper names, common names,
and descriptive phrases. Here are some examples:
• Proper Names Common Names Descriptive Phrases
• Abebe Animal First Prime Minister of
Ethiopia
• South Ethiopia Activity Author of Oromay
• The Ethiopian Parliament Person Those who study
hard
• Girmaa Gamachuu House
CONT
• Words that are not terms include verbs, non-substantive adjectives,
adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and all non-syntactic
arrangements of words.
• The following words or phrases are not terms; none can serve as the
subject of a statement:
• dictatorial above and beyond craves
• runs quickly moreover cabbages into
again the forest
• At this point, it is important to distinguish the use of a word from the
mention of a word.
• Without this distinction any word can be imagined to serve as the subject of
a statement and, therefore, to count as a term.
• for example, The word ‘‘wherever,’’ is not a term, but ‘‘wherever’’ (in quotes)
can serve as the subject of a statement, such as ‘‘‘Wherever’ is an eight-
letter word.’’ But in this statement, it is not the word itself that is the subject
but rather the quoted word. The word is said to be mentioned- not used.
• On the other hand, ‘‘wherever’’ is used in this statement: ‘‘I will follow you
wherever you go.’’ In distinguishing terms from non-terms one must be sure
that the word or group of words can be used as the subject of a statement.
• The intentional meaning, is also known as connotation, refers to the
qualities or attributes that the term connotes.
• The extensional meaning, is also called denotation, consists of the
members of the class that the term denotes. Examples:
• “Inventor” means a person who is, clever, intuitive, creative and
imaginative.
• “Inventor” means such as Thomas Edison, Alexander Graham Bell,
and Samuel F.B. Morse.
• The meaning of the first example is based on its attributes, qualities
or essential characteristics.
• The meaning of the second example is based on its class members.
• ‘‘Intension’’ and ‘‘extension’’ are roughly equivalent to the more modern
terms ‘‘sense’’ and ‘‘reference,’’ respectively.
• Also, it should be noted that logic uses the terms ‘‘connotation’’ and
‘‘denotation’’ differently from the way they are used in grammar.
• In grammar, ‘‘connotation’’ refers to the subtle nuances of a word, whereas
‘‘denotation’’ refers to the word’s direct and specific meaning.
• The conventional connotation of a term includes the attributes that the
term commonly calls forth in the minds of competent speakers of the
language.
• Under this interpretation, the connotation of a term remains more or less
the same from person to person and from time to time.
• The denotation of a term remains the same from person to person. For
example,
• The denotation (extensional meaning) of human being refers to all human
being in the universe, on which everybody agrees.
• This term either constantly fluctuating as some human beings die and
others are born or it is presumably constant because it denotes all human
beings, past, present, or future.
• Denotation of a term doesn’t remain the same from time to time? For
example,
• ‘the current king of Ethiopia. Is there any king in Ethiopia now? No.
Therefore, this term denotes an empty extension.
• An empty extension is said to denote: the empty or “null” class - the class
that has no members.
• You may recognize from the above example that emperor Haile Sillasie was
the king of Ethiopia in the past.
• Therefore, ‘the current king of Ethiopia’, changed over the passage of time.
• Thereby, things that do not have current objective reference include myth,
spiritual realities, extinct (died out) creatures, historical events, and so on do
not have extension. For instance, Dinosaur, Dragon, Satan, fictional and
mythical stories, etc.
• They do not have objective references that could serve as a living testimony
for their existence.
• The distinction between intension and extension may be further
illustrated by comparing the way in which these concepts can be used
to give order to random sequences of terms.
• Terms may be put in the order of increasing intension, increasing
extension, decreasing intension, and decreasing extension.
• A series of terms is in the order of increasing intension when each term
in the series (except the first) connotes more attributes than the one
preceding it. In other words, each term in the series (except the first) is
more specific than the one preceding it. (A term is specific to the
degree that it connotes more attributes.) The order of decreasing
intension is the reverse of that of increasing intension.
• A series of terms is in the order of increasing extension when each term
in the series (except the first) denotes a class having more members
than the class denoted by the term preceding it. In other words, the
class size gets larger with each successive term. The order of decreasing
extension is the reverse of that of increasing extension.
• Let us see the following examples:
• Increasing intension: animal, mammal, feline, tiger
• Increasing extension: tiger, feline, mammal, animal
• Decreasing intension: tiger, feline, mammal, animal
• Decreasing extension: animal, mammal, feline, tiger
3.3 Meaning, Types, and Purposes of
Definitions
• We have started our previous lesson by stating that argument is a
group of statements; and that statements are sentences that are
declarative; and that sentences are made up of words; and words
have their own meanings that are to be conveyed through definitions.
• That is, the meaning that words or terms have is explicated by
definitions.
• Definition is a technical and structural organization of words and/or
terms or phrases in explaining the meaning of a given term. Good
definitions are very helpful in eliminating verbal disputes. In this
lesson, we will learn the meaning, nature, and types of definitions.
3.3.1 The Meaning of Definition
• Definition is a technical and structural organization of words and/or
terms or phrases in explaining the meaning of a given term.
• Accordingly, every definition consists of two parts: the definiendum and
the definiens.
• The definiendum is the word or group of words that is supposed to be
defined,
• the definiens is the word or group of words that does the defining.
• For example, in the definition ‘‘‘Tiger’ means a large, striped, ferocious
feline indigenous to the jungles of India and Asia,’’ the word ‘‘tiger’’ is the
definiendum, and everything after the word ‘‘means’’ is the definiens.
3.3.2 The Types and Purposes of Definitions
• There are various kinds of definitions that are actually used in our
practical life.
• Based on the functions that they actually serve, definitions can be
classified into five: stipulative, lexical, précising, theoretical, and
persuasive definitions. Let us discuss them in detail.
1) Stipulative Definitions
• A stipulative definition assigns a meaning to a word for the first time.
This may involve either coining a new word or giving a new meaning
to an old word.
• The purpose of a stipulative definition is usually to replace a more
complex expression with a simpler one.
CONT
• Stipulative definition is used to introduce new meanings to some newly
discovered phenomenon or things in the area of archeological findings,
and innovations, such as new modes of behaviors, new kinds of fashion
clothes, new dances, new food inventions, etc
• Example:
• A few years ago the attempt was made at a certain zoo to crossbreed
male tiger and female lion by biologists. As a result of this, the offspring
was born from male Tiger and female lion. Thus, this suggests a need for
assigning a new name.
• So, they may call the new offspring ‘‘Tigon’’ taking the first three letters
from tiger (tig) and the last two letters from lion (on).
CONT
• Another use of stipulative definitions is to set up Secret Codes. It was (and still is)
common to give a secret code for the military invasion.
• Examples:
• during World War II, ‘‘Tora, Tora, Tora’’ was the code name Admiral Yamamoto
transmitted to the war office in Tokyo signaling that the Japanese fleet had not
been spotted in the hours preceding the bombing of Pearl Harbor.
• ‘‘Operation Barbarosa’’ was the name the code Germans gave to the invasion of
Russia;
• ‘‘Operation Desert Storm’’ was the code name given to the military invasion of Iraq.
• “Operation Sun Set” was the code name given to the military victory of Ethiopia
armed force against Eritrea, which is the most recently.
2) Lexical Definitions

• A lexical definition is used to report the meaning that a word

already has in a language. Dictionary definitions are all the
best examples of lexical definitions.
• The purpose of a lexical definition is to eliminate ambiguity
that would arise over the improper use of word to its
context.
• Some words that are subjected to ambiguous usage are:
“light”, “bank”, “sound”, “right” , “race”, ‘‘mad’’, “defuse” ,
“humanity” ,etc. Examples:
• ‘‘Light,’’ can mean light in weight or radiant energy.
3) Précising Definitions

• A précising definition provides a more precise, specific, exact

and restricted meaning to a term.
• The purpose of a précising definition is to reduce the
vagueness of a word.
• For example, the word ‘poor’ is a vague word. Suppose you
are an administrator of one humanitarian organization and
want to give a direct financial assistance to the poor.
• Therefore, we may define Poor as: “Poor” means a person
having a monthly income of less than Birr 150 . This is an
example of a précising definition.
4) Theoretical Definitions

A theoretical definition assigns a meaning to a word by suggesting a

theory that gives a certain characterization to the entities that the term
denotes.
Such a definition provides a way of viewing or conceiving these entities
that suggests deductive consequences, further investigation
(experimental or otherwise), and whatever else would be entailed by
the acceptance of a theory governing these entities.
Fore example there is no any way to see or view “heat” except in
theoretical way.
CONT
• not all theoretical definitions are associated with science. Many terms in
philosophy, such as “substance”, “form”, “cause”, “change”, “idea”,
“good”, “mind”, and “God” have been given theoretical definitions.
• In fact most of the major philosophers in history have given these terms
their own peculiar theoretical definitions, and this fact accounts in part
for the unique character of their respective philosophies.
• For example, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz’s definition of ‘‘substance’’ in
terms of what he called ‘‘monads’’ laid the foundation for his
metaphysical theory, and John Stuart Mill’s definition of ‘‘good’’ as the
greatest happiness of the greatest number provided the underpinnings
for his utilitarian theory of ethics.
5) Persuasive Definitions
• The purpose of a persuasive definition is to engender a favorable or
unfavorable attitude toward what is denoted by the definiendum.
• This purpose is accomplished by assigning an emotionally charged or
value-laden meaning to a word while making it appears that the word
really has (or ought to have) that meaning in the language in which it
is used.
• Thus, persuasive definitions amount to a certain synthesis of
stipulative, lexical, and, possibly, theoretical definitions backed by the
rhetorical motive to engender a certain attitude.
• As a result of this synthesis, a persuasive definition masquerades as
an honest assignment of meaning to a term while condemning or
blessing with approval the subject matter of the definiendum. Let us
CONT
• “Abortion’’ means the ruthless murdering of innocent human beings.
‘‘Abortion’’ means a safe and established surgical procedure whereby
a woman is relieved of an unwanted burden.
• Taxation’’ means the procedure by means of which our
commonwealth is preserved and sustained. ‘‘Taxation’’ means the
procedure used by bureaucrats to rip off the people who elected
them.
• While persuasive definitions may, like lexical definitions, be evaluated
as either true or false, the primary issue is neither truth nor falsity but
the effectiveness of such definitions as instruments of persuasion.
Giving their primary objective- i.e., influencing the attitudes of the
reader/listener.
3.4 Techniques of Definition
3.4.1 The Extensional (Denotative) Definitional Techniques
• An extensional definition is one that assigns a meaning to a term by
indicating the members of the class that the definiendum denotes.
• There are at least three ways of indicating the members of a class:
pointing to them (demonstrative or ostensive definitions), naming
them individually (enumerative definitions), and naming them in
groups (definitions by subclass).
1) Demonstrative Definitions
• Demonstrative Definitions are probably the most primitive
form of definition.
• It is the meaning of pointing.
• Such definitions may be either partial or complete,
depending on whether all or only some of the members of
the class denoted by the definiendum are pointed to.
• Here are some examples:
• “Chair’’ means this and this and this- as you point to a
number of chairs, one after the other.
• “Washington Monument’’ means that- as you point to it.
CONT
Demonstrative definitions are also the most limited.
For example, if one wishes to define the word ‘‘sun’’ and it
happens to be nighttime, a demonstrative definition cannot be
used.
Demonstrative definitions differ from the other kinds of
definitions in that the definiens is constituted at least in part
by a gesture- the gesture of pointing.
Since the definiens in any definition is a group of words,
however, a gesture, such as pointing, must count as a word.
While this conclusion may appear strange at first, it is
2) Enumerative Definitions
• Enumerative Definitions assign a meaning to a term by
naming the members of the class the term denotes.
• Like demonstrative definitions, they may also be either
partial or complete.
• Example:
• “Actor’’ means a person such as Abebe Balicha, Samsom
Taddesse, or Mahder Assefa.
• Complete enumerative definitions are usually more satisfying
than partial ones because they identify the definiendum with
greater assurance.
3) Definition by Subclass

• Definition by Subclass assigns a meaning to a term by naming subclasses of the

class denoted by the term.
• Such a definition, too, may be either partial or complete, depending on whether
the subclasses named, when taken together, include all the members of the class
or only some of them. See the following examples, the first is partial, the second
is complete:
• ‘‘Tree’’ means an oak, pine, elm, spruce, maple, and the like.
• “Fictional work’’ means a poem, a play, a novel, or a short story.
• As with definitions by enumeration, complete definitions by subclass are more
satisfying than partial ones; but because relatively few terms denote classes that
admit of a conveniently small number of subclasses, complete definitions by
subclass are often difficult, if not impossible, to provide.
3.4.2 The Intensional (Connotative)
Definitional Techniques
• An intensional definition one that assigns a meaning to a
word by indicating the qualities or attributes that the word
connotes.
• There are at least four strategies that may be used to
indicate the attributes/qualities that a word connotes. These
strategies result synonymous definitions, etymological
definitions, operational definitions, definitions by genus and
difference.
1) Synonymous Definition
• Synonymous Definition is one in which the definiens is a single word
that connotes the same attributes as the definiendum- that the
definiens is a synonym of the word being defined.
Examples:
• “Physician” means doctor.
• “Observe “means see.
• When a single word can be found that has the same intensional
meaning as the word beng defined, a synonymous definition is a
highly concise way of assigning a meaning.
• However, many words have subtle shades of meaning that are not
connoted by any other single word. For example, the word “wisdom”
2) Etymological Definition
• Etymological Definition assigns a meaning to a word by disclosing the
word’s ancestry in both its own language and other languages.
• For example, the English word ‘‘license’’ is derived from the Latin verb
licere, which means to be permitted.
3) Operational Definition
Operational Definition assigns a meaning to a word by specifying
certain experimental procedures that determine whether or not the
word applies to a certain thing.
Examples:
One substance is ‘‘harder than’’ another if and only if one scratches the
other when the two are rubbed together.
A solution is an ‘‘acid’’ if and only if litmus paper turns red when dipped
into it.
Each of these definitions prescribes an operation to be performed. The
first prescribes that the two substances in question be rubbed together,
the second that the litmus paper be placed in the solution and
4) Definition by Genus and Difference

• Definition by Genus and Difference assigns a meaning to a

term by identifying a genus term and one or more difference
words that, when combined, convey the meaning of the
term being defined.
• In logic, ‘‘genus’’ and ‘‘species’’ have a somewhat different
meaning than they have in biology.
• In logic, ‘‘genus’’ simply means a relatively larger class, and
‘‘species’’ means a relatively smaller subclass of the genus.
• For example, we may speak of the genus animal and the
species mammal, or of the genus mammal and the species
• A definition by genus and difference is easy to construct.
• The step is Simply select a term that is more general than the term to be
defined, and then narrow it down so that it means the same thing as the
term being defined. Example
• Species Difference Genus
• Ice means frozen water.
• Husband means married man.
• Mother means female parent
• Tiger means a large, stripped and
• ferocious feline
• Lexical definitions are typically definitions by genus and difference,
but they also often include etymological definitions.
• Operational definition can serve as the method for constructing
stipulative, lexical, précising, and persuasive definitions, but it could
not be used to produce a complete lexical definition.
• Synonymous definition may be used to produce only lexical
definitions.
• Synonymous definition cannot be used to produce stipulative
definitions because the definiendum must have a meaning before a
synonymous definition.
• Also Synonymous can not be used to construct précising, theoretical,
and persuasive definitions because the definiens of synonymous
definitions contains no more information than the definiendum.
• In other words, the definiens of a synonymous definition adds nothing
new to the definiendum.
3.5 Criteria for Lexical Definitions
• Giving the function of a lexical definition, lexical definitions are what
we most frequently encounter and are what most people mean when
they speak of the ‘‘definition’’ of a word. Accordingly, it is appropriate
that we have a set of rules that we may use in constructing our own
lexical definitions and in evaluating the lexical definitions of others.
While some of these rules apply to the other kinds of definitions as
well, the unique functions that are served by stipulative, précising,
theoretical, and persuasive definitions prescribe different sets of
criteria.
Rule 1

A Lexical Definition Should Conform to the Standards of Proper Grammar.

• A definition, like any other form of expression, should be grammatically correct.
For examples, the following definitions are grammatically incorrect:
• Vacation is when you don’t have to go to work or school.
• Furious means if you’re angry at someone.
• Here are the grammatically correct definitions of the above terms:
• ‘‘Vacation’’ means a period during which activity is suspended from work or
school.
• “Furious’’ means a condition of being angry.
• Technically, the definiendum should be put in quotation marks or italics, but this
convention is not always followed.
Rule 2
A lexical definition should convey or communicate the essential meaning or
characteristics of the word being defined.
Thus, a correct definition attempts to point out the attributes that are
essential to the designation of things as the members of the relevant group.
Example:
‘‘Human being’’ means a featherless biped.
This definition fails to says nothing about the important attributes that
distinguish human beings from the other.
A correct and adequate definition would be “Human being” means “the
rational animal that has the capacity to reason and to speak” and not as a
featherless biped.
Rule 3
A Lexical Definition Should Be Neither Too Broad nor Too Narrow.
• If a definition is too broad, the definiens includes too much; if it is too
narrow, the definiens includes too little. If, for example, ‘‘bird’’ were
defined as any warm-blooded animal having wings, the definition
would be too broad because it would include bats, and bats are not
birds. If, on the other hand, ‘‘bird’’ were defined as any warm-
blooded, feathered animal that can fly, the definition would be too
narrow because it would exclude ostriches, which cannot fly.
Rule 4
• A lexical definition should avoid circularity
• A circular definition presents the meaning of a word: either by using
the same word with the same meaning in the definiens, or by using
grammatical variation of the same word (the definiendum) in the
definiens. Examples:
• ‘‘Religious ’’ means any one engaged in religious activity.
• ‘‘Scientist’’ means anyone who engages in science.
• A circular definition cannot provide any useful additional information
to the word being defined or their definiendum becomes visible in the
definiens.
Rule 5
• A lexical definition should not be negative when it can be affirmative.
• Of the following two definitions, the first one negative, and the
second affirmative: Example
• ‘‘Concord’’ means the absence of discord.
• “Concord’’ means harmony.
• Thus, definition should explain what a term does mean rather than
what it does not mean.
• Some words, however, are intrinsically negative. For them, a negative
definition is quite appropriate. Example
• ‘‘Bald’’ means lacking hair.
Rule 6
• A Lexical Definition Should Avoid Figurative, Obscure, Vague, or
Ambiguous Language.
• A definition is figurative if it involves metaphors or tends to paint a
picture instead of exposing the essential meaning of a term.
Example:
• “Camel’’ means a ship of the desert.
Rule 7:
A Lexical Definition Should Avoid Affective Terminology.
• Affective terminology is any kind of word usage that plays upon the
emotions of the reader or listener. It includes sarcastic and facetious
language and any other kind of language that is liable to influence
attitudes. Example:
• “Communism’’ means that ‘‘brilliant’’ invention of Karl Marx and
other foolish political visionaries in which the national wealth is
supposed to be held in common by the people.
Rule 8
• A Lexical Definition Should Indicate the Context to Which the Definiens
Pertains.
• This rule applies to any definition in which the context of the definiens is
important to the meaning of the definiendum. Examples:
• “Strike’’ means (in baseball) a pitch at which a batter swings and misses.
• ‘‘Strike’’ means (in bowling) the act of knocking down all the pins with the
first ball of a frame.
• ‘‘Strike’’ means (in fishing) a pull on a line made by a fish in taking the bait.
• It is not always necessary to make explicit reference to the context, but at
least the phraseology of the definiens should indicate the context.