Digital Logic Design

Chapter 2

Boolean algebra and logic gates

1
Outline
2.2 Basic Definitions
2.3 Axiomatic Definition of Boolean Algebra.
2.4 Basic Theorems and Properties
2.5 Boolean Functions
2.6 Canonical and Standard Forms
2.7 Other Logic Operations
2.8 Digital Logic Gates

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2.2 Basic Definitions (1-2)
Boolean Algebra:
 Formulated by E.V. Huntington, 1904.

A set of elements B={0,1} and two binary operators + and •

Closure Associative
 x, y  B  x+y  B  (x+y)+z = x + (y + z)
 x, y  B x•y B  (x•y)•z = x•(y•z)

Commutative Identity element

 x+y=y+x  0+x = x+0 = x
 x•y = y•x  1•x = x•1=x

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2.2 Basic Definitions (2-2)

Complement (inverse)
  x  B,  x'‚  B (complement of x)
 x+x'=1;
 x•x'=0

Distributive Law

Over +:
 x•(y+z)=(x•y)+(x•z).

Over •:
 x+ (y.z)=(x+ y)•(x+z).

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2.3 Axiomatic Definition of Boolean Algebra (1-2)
Two- Valued Boolean Algebra:

x y x•y x y x+y
•= AND 0 0 0 0 0 0
x x’
0 1 0 0 1 1
+ = OR 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1
‘ = NOT 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 1

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2.3 Axiomatic Definition of Boolean Algebra
(2-2)

Two- Valued Boolean Algebra:

Distributive law: x•(y+z)=(x•y)+(x•z)

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2.4 Basic Theorems and Properties (1-7)

Duality Principle
Using Huntington rules, one part may be obtained from the other if the
binary operators and the identity elements are interchanged.

Duality done by:

1- Interchange OR and AND Operations.
2- Replace the identity elements 1’s by 0’s and 0’s by 1’s.

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 2.4 Basic Theorems and Properties (2-7)
Table 2.1 Postulates and Theorems of Boolean algebra
Postulates 2 (a) X + 0 = X (b) X .1 = X
Postulates 5 (a) X + X’ = 1 (b) X . X’ = 0
Theorem 1 (a) X + X = X (b) X .X = X
Theorem 2 (a) X + 1 = 1 (b) X .0 = 0
Theorem 3 , involution (X ‘)’= X

Postulate 3,commutative (a) X + Y = Y + X (b) XY = YX

Theorem 4 , associative (a) (X + Y) + Z = X + (Y + Z) (b) (XY) Z = X(Y Z)
Postulate 4 , distributive (a) X(Y + Z) = XY + XZ (b) X + YZ = (X + Y) (X + Z)
Theorem 5 , deMorgan’s (a) (X + Y)’ = X . Y (b) (X . Y)’ = X’ + Y’
Theorem 6 ,absorption (a)X + XY = X (b) X(X+Y) = X

1. Parentheses.
Operator Precedence 2. NOT.
3. AND.
4. OR.
2.4 Basic Theorems and Properties (3-7)
Basic Theorems

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2.4 Basic Theorems and Properties (4-7)
Basic Theorems

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2.4 Basic Theorems and Properties (5-7)
Basic Theorems

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2.4 Basic Theorems and Properties (6-7)
Truth Table
A table of all possible combinations of x and y variables showing the
relation between the variable values and the result of the operation.

Theorem 6(a) Absorption

The theorems of Boolean algebra can be proven by means of truth table.

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2.4 Basic Theorems and Properties (7-7)
Truth Table

Theorem 5: DeMorgan theorem, (x + y)’ = x’y’

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2.5 Boolean Functions (1-11)
Logic Circuit  Boolean Function

Example
List the truth table for the follwoing functions and draw their
implementation gates.

 F1= x + (y’z).
 F2= x‘y’z + x’yz + xy‘

• Boolean algebra is an algebra that deals with binary variables and logic operations.
• A Boolean function described by an algebraic expression consists of binary variables,
the constants 0 and 1, and the logic operation symbols.

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2.5 Boolean Functions (1-11)
F1= x + (y’z)
X Y Z Y’ Y’*Z X + (y’ z)
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 1
1 1 1 0 0 1

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2.5 Boolean Functions (1-11)
Truth table

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2.5 Boolean Functions (2-11)

Gate Implementation of F1

F1= x + (y’z).

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2.5 Boolean Functions (3-11)

Gate Implementation of F2

F2= x‘y’z + x’yz + xy‘

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2.5 Boolean Functions (4-11)

Gate Implementation F2 after simplifying it

 F2= x‘y’z + x’yz + xy’.

 F2= x‘(y’z + yz) + xy’.
 F2= x‘(z (y’+ y)) + xy’.
 F2= x‘(z (1)) + xy’.
 F2= x‘z + xy’.

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2.5 Boolean Functions (5-11)

Algebraic Manipulation - Simplification

Example
Simplify the following Boolean functions to a minimum number of
literals:

x(x’+y) x+x’y
 =xx’ + xy  =(x+x’)(x+y)

 =0+xy = xy  =1(x+y)
 = x+y

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2.5 Boolean Functions (6-11)
DeMorgan‘s Theorem
(x+y)(x+y’)
 =x+ xy + xy’+yy’
 =x (1+ y + y’)
 =x (x+y)(x’+z)(y+z)
 =(x+y)(x’+z)

xy + x’z + yz by duality function 4

 = xy + x’z + yz(x+x’)
 = xy + x’z + xyz + x’yz
 =xy(1+z) + x’z (1+y)
 = xy + x’z

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2.5 Boolean Functions (7-11)
Complement of a Function
 Complement of a variable x
 is x’ (0  1 and 1 0).
 The complement of a function F
 is x’ and is obtained from an interchange of 0’s for 1’s and 1’s for 0’s
in the value of F
 The dual of a function
 is obtained from the interchange of AND and OR operators and 1’s
and 0’s.

Finding the complement of a funtion F

 Applying DeMorgan’s theorem as many times as necessary.
 Complementing each literal of the dual of F

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2.5 Boolean Functions (8-11)
DeMorgan‘s Theorem

2-variable DeMorgan’s Theorem

 (x + y)’ = x’y’.
 (xy)’ = x’ + y’.

3-variable DeMorgan’s Theorem

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2.5 Boolean Functions (9-11)
DeMorgan‘s Theorem

Generalized DeMorgan’s Theorem

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2.5 Boolean Functions (10-11)
Example

 A simpler procedure for deriving the complement of a function is to

take the dual of the function and complement each literal.
 This method follows from the Generalized DeMorgan’s Theorem

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2.5 Boolean Functions (11-11)
Example

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2.6 Canonical and Standard Forms (1-23)

Logic circuit  Boolean function  Truth table

 Any Boolean function can be expressed as a sum of minterms.
 Any Boolean function can be expressed as a product of maxterms

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2.6 Canonical and Standard Forms (2-23)
Minterms and Maxterms
Minterm (or standard products):
 Any binary variable may appear either in
its normal form (x) or in its complement
form (x').
 n variables combined with AND.
 n variables can be combined to form 2n 001 => x’y’z (m1)
minterms.
100 => xy’z’ (m4)
 two Variables: x’y’, x’y, xy’, and xy
111 => xyz (m7)
 A variable of a minterm is:
 Prime: if the corresponding bit of the
binary number is a 0.
 Unprime: if the corresponding bit of the
binary number is a 1.

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2.6 Canonical and Standard Forms (3-23)
Minterms and Maxterms

Maxterm (or standard sums):

 n variables combined with OR.

 A variable of a maxterm is:
 Prime: if the corresponding bit of the
binary number is a 1.
001 => x + y + z’ (M1)
 Unprime: if the corresponding bit of 100 => x’ + y + z (M4)
the binary number is a 0. 111 => x’ + y’ + z’ (M7)
Each maxterm is the complement of its
corresponding minterm and vice versa.

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2.6 Canonical and Standard Forms (4-23)
Minterms and Maxterms

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2.6 Canonical and Standard Forms (5-23)
Expressing Truth Table in Boolean Function
 Any Boolean function can be expressed as:
 Sum of minterms.
 Product of maxterms.
(either 0 or 1 for each term)
 Said to be in a canonical form.

 Expressing Truth Table in Boolean Function

 Forming a minterm for each combination of the variables that produces a
one in the function.
 Taking the OR of all those terms.

 n variables:
 22n possible functions.

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2.6 Canonical and Standard Forms (6-23)
Expressing Truth Table in Boolean Function
Example:

Mint
erm
s

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2.6 Canonical and Standard Forms (7-23)
Expressing Truth Table in Boolean Function
Max
term
s
1

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2.6 Canonical and Standard Forms (8-23)
Expressing Boolean Function in Sum of Minterms (Method 1
- Supplementing)

Rule
If the function is not in Minterm form
 Expanding the expression into a sum of AND terms.
 Each term is then inspected to see if it contains all the variables.
 If it misses one or more variables, it is ANDed with an expression such
as x + x', where x is one of the missing variables.

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2.6 Canonical and Standard Forms (9-23)
Expressing Boolean Function in Sum of Minterms (Method 1
- Supplementing)

Example
Express the Boolean function F = A + B'C as a sum of minterm.

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2.6 Canonical and Standard Forms (10-23)
Expressing Boolean Function in Sum of Minterms (Method 1
- Supplementing)

Example

Short Notation:
F(A, B, C ) = ∑(1,4,5,6,7)

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2.6 Canonical and Standard Forms (11-23)
Expressing Boolean Function in Sum of Minterms (Method 1
- Supplementing)

Short Notation:
F(A, B, C ) = ∑(1,4,5,6,7)

Stands for the The minterms of

ORing of terms the function

List of the variables in

the order taken when the minterm is
converted to an AND term

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2.6 Canonical and Standard Forms (12-23)
Expressing Boolean Function in Sum of Minterms (Method 2
– Truth Table)

Example Express the Boolean function F = A + B'C as a sum of

minterm, using the truth table

F(A, B, C)
= (1, 4, 5, 6,7)
= (0, 2, 3)

F’(A, B, C)
= (0, 2, 3)
= (1, 4, 5, 6, 7)

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2.6 Canonical and Standard Forms (13-23)
Expressing Boolean Function in Product of Maxterms
Rule
If the function is not in Maxterm form
 Use distributive law e.g. x + yz = (x + y)(x + z)
 Each term is then inspected to see if it contains all the variables.
 If it misses one or more variables, it is ORed with an expression such
as xx', where x is one of the missing variables.

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2.6 Canonical and Standard Forms (14-23)
Expressing Boolean Function in Product of Maxterms
Example
Express the Boolean function F = xy + x‘z as a product of maxterms.

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2.6 Canonical and Standard Forms (15-23)
Expressing Boolean Function in Product of Maxterms
Example

Short Notation:
F(A, B, C ) = (0,2,4,5) The minterms of
the function

Stands for the

List of the variables in ANDing of terms
the order taken when the maxterm is
converted to an OR term

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2.6 Canonical and Standard Forms (16-23)
Conversion Between Canonical Forms
Canonical conversion procedure
 Consider: F(A, B, C) = ∑(1, 4, 5, 6, 7).
 F‘: complement of F = F’(A, B, C) = ∑(0, 2, 3) =m +m + m (Missing
0 2 3
minterms)
 Compute complement of F’ by DeMorgan’s Theorem:

F = (F‘)‘ = (m0 +m2 + m3)‘ = (m0‘. m2‘. m3‘) = M0 . M2 . M3 =

(0, 2,3). (Obtain F in different form)
 m ‘=M .
j j

Summary
 Interchange the symbols ∑ and .
 List numbers missing from the original form.
 E.g. ∑(1, 4, 5, 6, 7) = (0, 2,3).
 Shown by truth table (Table 2-5)

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2.6 Canonical and Standard Forms (17-23)
Two Canonical Forms of Boolean Algebra from Truth
Table
Example:
Boolean exprexsion: F(x, y, z) = xy + x’z

Truth Table Canonical Forms

F(x, y, z)
=(1, 3, 6, 7)
=(0, 2, 4, 5)

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2.6 Canonical and Standard Forms (18-23)

Standard Forms
 Canonical Forms: each minterm or maxterm must contain
all the variables. Can be obtained from the truth table.
 Standard Forms: the terms that form the function may
contain one, two, or any number of literals (variables).

Canonical forms  Standard forms

 Sum of Minterms, Product of Maxterms.
 Sum of Products, Product of Sums.

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2.6 Canonical and Standard Forms (19-23)
Two types of standard forms (2-level)
Sum of Products
 Boolean expression containing AND terms, called product terms with
one or more literals each.
 Sum denotes ORing of these term.
 E.g. F1 = y‘ + xy + x‘yz‘.

Product of Sums
 Boolean expression containing OR terms, called sum terms with one or
more literals each.
 Product denotes ANDing of these term.
 E.g. F2 = x (y‘ + z)(x‘ + y + z‘)

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2.6 Canonical and Standard Forms (20-23)
Standard Form and Logic Circuit

Two – level Implementation

F1 = y‘ + xy + x‘yz‘

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2.6 Canonical and Standard Forms (21-23)
Standard Form and Logic Circuit

Two– level Implementation

F2 = x (y‘ + z)(x‘ + y + z‘)

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2.6 Canonical and Standard Forms (22-23)
NonStandard Form and Logic Circuit

Three – level Implementation

Can be changed to a
NonStandard Form: standard form by using
distributive law
F3 = AB + C(D + E)

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2.6 Canonical and Standard Forms (23-23)
NonStandard Form and Logic Circuit

A two-level implementation is
preferred:
produces the least amount of
Two – level Implementation delay through the gates when the
signal propagates from the inputs
Standard Form: to the output
F4 = AB + CD + CE

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2.7 Other Logic Operations (1-3)
 There are 22n functions for n binary variables.
 For n =2:
 Where are 16 possible functions.
 AND and OR operators are two of them: x . y and x + y.

Subdivided into Three Categories

 Two functions that produce a constant 0 or I.

 Four functions with unary operation: complement and transfer.

 Ten functions with binary operators that define eight different

operations: AND, OR NAND, NOR, exclusive-OR, equivalence (XNOR),
inhibition, and implication.

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2.7 Other Logic Operations (2-3)

Possible functions for the two n variables = 22n

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2.7 Other Logic Operations (3-3)

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2.8 Digital Logic Gates (1-9)
Standard Gates
 Eight gates are:
 AND.
 OR.
 Complement (NOT) (Inverter = Buffer + Bubble)
 Transfer (Buffer)
 NAND.
 NOR.
 XOR.
 Equivelance.
 Each gate has one or two binary input variables, designated by x and y,
and one binary output variable designated by F.

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2.8 Digital Logic Gates (2-9)

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2.8 Digital Logic Gates (3-9)

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2.8 Digital Logic Gates (4-9)
Mulitple Inputs

 Inverter and buffere accepts ONLY one variable.

 AND and OR functions are Communicative and Associative.

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2.8 Digital Logic Gates (5-9)
Mulitple Inputs
 NAND and NOR functions are Communicative but not Associative.

Solution
 Define multiple NOR (or NAND) gate as a complemented OR (or AND)
gate (Section 3-6)

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2.8 Digital Logic Gates (6-9)
Mulitple Inputs

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2.8 Digital Logic Gates (7-9)

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2.8 Digital Logic Gates (8-9)
Mulitple Inputs
 XOR and equivalence gates are both Communicative and
Associative.

 Uncommon, usually constructed with other types of gates.

 XOR is an odd function (Section 3.9).

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2.8 Digital Logic Gates (9-9)
Mulitple Inputs

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