ELECTRONICS I

UNIT II: PN JUNCTION DIODES

By
Dechen Lhamo
ECED
PN JUNCTION DIODES
• Formation and characteristics of PN Junction
diodes;
• Half wave and full wave rectifiers: Ripple factor,
Rectification efficiency,
• filters;
• Interpretation of Data Sheet for Diodes;
• Zener diodes, its characteristics & use as a
simple voltage regulator;
• Construction, working principles of Clippers,
• Construction, working principles of Clampers,
• Peak detectors;
• General idea about LED, Photodiodes, Schottky
diodes
PN Junction
• When p-type and n-type materials are placed in
contact with each other, the junction behaves very
differently than either type of material alone
• Near the junction, electrons diffuse across to
combine with holes, creating a "depletion region".
The energy level reaches an equilibrium condition
to form a P-N junction.
• No mobile charge carriers in depletion layer
Junction or Barrier Voltage
• Contains fixed rows of oppositely charged ions
on two sides of depletion layer.
• Charge separation establishes an electric
potential across the junction even without
external field called junction or potential
barrier.
• This force repels and stops mobile charge
carriers to cross over the junction unless energy
is supplied from external source.
• At room temperature VB =0.6V for Si and
VB=0.2V for Ge
• Depends on density, electronic charge and
temperature. For both Si and Ge VB decreases
by 2mV/0C ie
where Δt is the rise in temperature in 0C
 Currents in an Unbiased PN Junction
A PN junction across which no external voltage source is
connected is known as unbiased PN Junction.
A hole in the P-region requires an energy (equal to q.VB) in order
to crossover the junction. Similarly an electron in N-region
requires the same amount of energy to crossover the junction.
At room temperature, thermal energy is added continuously so
few holes and electrons will acquire enough energy to get over the
potential barrier and diffuse the junction. Since the electrons and
holes diffuse in opposite directions, there is a single current across
the junction called majority carrier current.
 Biasing PN Junction
• A PN junction connected to an external voltage source is called a biased PN
Junction.
• Applying external voltage across PN Junction, width of the depletion layer can
be controlled. This allows to control the resistance of the PN junction and also
the amount of current that can pass through the device.
• There are two ways of connecting voltage source to a PN junction

Positive terminal of voltage connected

Positive terminal of voltage connected to
to N-side and negative terminal to P-
P-side and negative terminal to N-side.
side. No current flows through the
Large amount of current flows through the
junction
junction
 Forward Biased PN Junction
• In a forward biased PN junction, the holes are repelled by the positive terminal of the voltage source
and are forced to move towards the junction. because of the acquired energy some of the holes and
electrons enter the depletion layer and the recombine themselves. This reduces the width as well as
the height of the potential barriers. In other words the width of the depletion layer and the barrier
potential reduces with forward bias. As a result more majority carriers diffuse across the junction.
Therefore it cases a large current to flow through the PN junction.
• For each recombination of free electron and hole which occurs an electron from the negative
terminal of the voltage source enters the N-type region. Then it moves towards the junction. Similarly
the P-type region near the positive terminal of the voltage source, an electron breaks a covalent bond
in the crystal and enters the positive terminal of the voltage source. Thus for each electron which
breaks its bond a hole is created. This hole drifts towards the junction. The current through the
external circuit is due to the movement of electrons only. On the other hand, the current within the
PN junction is the sum of electron current in the N-type and hole current in the P-type region
• The current in the external circuit continue to flow as long as the voltage source is present in the
circuit. The current increases with the increase in applied voltage and it’s of the order of several
milliamperes. the maximum value of current depends upon the actual resistance called bulk
resistance of the semiconductor material.
PN Junction and forward bias
Effect of Barrier Potential on
forward Biased PN Junction

• Barrier potential of the

depletion layer can be
considered as a small battery
which opposes the external
d.c. voltage. the PN junction
does not allow the current to
flow until the external voltage
overcomes the barrier
potential. E.g. Silicon VB=0.7
Reversed biased PN Junction
• In a reverse biased junction, holes in the P-region are attracted towards the
negative terminal of the voltage source. And the electrons in the N-region are
attracted to the positive terminal of the voltage source. Thus the majority carriers
are drawn away from the junction. This widens the depletion layer and increases
the barrier potential.
• The increase barrier potential makes it very difficult for the majority carriers to
diffuse across the junction. Thus there is no current due to majority carriers in a
reverse biased PN Junction.
• However the barrier potential helps the minority carriers to cross the junction.so a
Small current flows in a reverse bias PN Junction. The amount of current depends
on the number of minority carriers diffusing across the junction. This in turn
depends upon the generation of minority carriers in the P and N regions.
• The generation of minority carriers is dependent on the temperature and
independent of the applied reverse voltage. Therefore the current due to the flow
of minority carriers remains same where the applied voltage is increased or
decreased. Because of this reason the current is known as reverse saturation
current.
PN Junction with Reverse Bias
 Reverse Breakdown
PN junction allows a small amount of current when reverse biased. This current is due to
movement of minority carriers across the junction and is independent of the applied
reverse voltage. if the reverse bias is increased to a large value, the current through the
junction increases abruptly. The voltage at which this action occurs is known as
breakdown voltage.
The following two processes cause junction breakdown due to increase in reverse voltage:
• Zener breakdown: breakdown occurs in junctions which are heavily doped. The heavily doped
junctions have a narrow depletion layer. When the reverse voltage is increased, the electric
field at the junction also increases. A strong electric field causes a covalent bond to break from
the crystal structure. As a result a large number of minority carriers are generated and a large
current flows through the junction.
• Avalanche breakdown: the increased reverse voltage increases the amount of energy imparted
to minority carriers as they diffuse across the junction. As the reverse voltage is increased
further minority carriers acquire a large amount of energy. These carriers collide with Si/Ge
atoms within the crystal structure, impart sufficient energy to breakdown a covalent bond and
generate additional carriers. As a result the reverse current increases rapidly. This cumulative
process of carrier generation is known as avalanche breakdown.
 PN Junction diode
• A PN Junction diode consists of a PN Junction formed
either in germanium or silicon crystal. The diode has
two terminals namely anode (P-Type region) and
cathode (N-type region).
• Conducts current easily when forward biased while it
does not conduct in reverse bias
VI characteristics of a PN Junction
Diode
• Curve between voltage and Current
• Change in Current for Change in Voltage (Junction)
• 3- Situations
1. Zero External Voltage
Open Circuit, Potential Barrier does not allow current
flow
2. Forward Biased
P connected to +ve side and N connected to –ve side,
Reduced Potential Barrier
At some forward voltage (0.7V for Si and 0.3 V for Ge),
the barrier is altogether eliminated hence current
starts flowing , Non-Linear at first (Overcome the
Barrier) Almost linear after overcoming the Barrier
VI characteristics of a PN Junction Diode
3. Reverse Biased
P connected to –ve and N connected to +ve ; Increased
Potential Barrier and Junction resistance ; No flow of
Current
Practically: Small current flows in reverse bias called reverse
saturation current (Is) due to minority carrier.
The minority carrier forms forward biased.
Continuous increase of reverse voltage causes Breakdown:
The KE of electron (minority carrier) becomes high enough
to knockout electrons from the atom Hence sudden rise of
current and decrease in resistance.
PN junction diodes with ac source
• During the positive half-cycle of AC. input voltage,
diode is forward biased and conducts current in the
circuit.
• During the negative half-cycle of input a.c. voltage,
the diode becomes reverse biased and does not
conduct and no voltage appears across load RL.
 Example:
• In each of diode circuit in the figures below, find whether
the diodes are forward biased or reverse biased.
Resistance of a Diode
Static and dynamic resistance of a
diode.
• A real diode is not a perfect conductor when
forward biased and not a perfect insulator when
reverse biased . In other words it does not offer
zero resistance when forward biased or infinite
resistance when reverse biased. It means that a
diode has a definite value of resistance when
forward biased. This is known as the d.c. or static
forward resistance of the diode.
 Static and dynamic resistance of a
diode.
• In practice, static resistance is hardly used. Instead we use the
dynamic or a.c. resistance. The resistance offered by the diode to
an ac signal is called its dynamic resistance or ac resistance. The
dynamic resistance of a diode at a particular dc voltage is equal to
the reciprocal of the slope of the characteristic at that point i.e.

ac resistance,

• Reverse resistance is the resistance of a diode when it is reverse

biased. Can be d.c. or a.c. resistance depending on whether the
reverse bias is d.c. or a.c. The reverse resistance is very large
compared to the forward resistance.
 Static and dynamic resistance of a
diode.
• The ac resistance of a diode maybe determined from the following
two resistances;
• Bulk resistance: the resistance of the P-type and N-type materials of
which the diode is made of. It also includes the resistance introduced
by the connection between the semiconductor material and the
external metallic conductor also called contact resistance.

The voltage drop across the diode is

• Junction resistance: Its value for a forward biased PN junction

depends upon the value of forward d.c. current.

Therefore the a.c. resistance is equal to the sum of junction resistance

and bulk resistance.
 Ideal Diode vs real Diode
• An ideal diode behaves like a perfect conductor when
forward biased and as a perfect insulator when reverse
biased.
• Eg an automatic switch
• Practically impossible to achieve.

V-I characteristic of the ideal diode

 • In an actual diode, when it is forward
biased, it does not pass any current until
the applied voltage exceeds the knee
voltage or cut in voltage. Therefore it
maybe represented by a switch in series
with a battery of emf equal to the knee
voltage.

V-I characteristic of the Real diode

 IDEAL DIODE
• Example: Assume the diode in the circuit
below is ideal. Determine the value of ID if
a) VA = 5 volts (forward bias) and b) VA = -5
volts (reverse bias)
a) With VA > 0 the diode is in
forward bias and is acting like a
perfect conductor so:
ID = VA/RS = 5 V / 50  = 100
mA

b) With VA < 0 the diode is in

reverse bias and is acting like a
perfect insulator, therefore no
current can flow and ID = 0.
ACTUAL / REAL DIODE
• Example: To be more accurate than just using
the ideal diode model include the barrier
potential. Assume V = 0.3 volts (typical for a
germanium diode) Determine the value of ID
if VA = 5 volts (forward bias).
With VA > 0 the diode is in
forward bias and is acting like a
perfect conductor so write a KVL
equation to find ID:

0 = VA – IDRS - V

ID = (VA - V )/Rs = 4.7 V/50


The Ideal Diode with Barrier Potential
and Linear Forward Resistance
Example: Assume the diode is a low-power diode
with a forward resistance value of 5 ohms. The
barrier potential voltage is still: V = 0.3 volts
(typical for a germanium diode) Determine the
value of ID if VA = 5 volts.
Diffusion and Drift Current
The flow of the charge i.e. the current through a semiconductor
material are of two types namely drift and diffusion.
DRIFT CURRENT:
When an electric filed is applied across the semiconductor
material the charge carriers attain a certain drift velocity vd, which
is equal to the product of the mobility of the charge carriers and
the applied electric field intensity, E.
The holes move towards the negative terminal of the battery and
electrons move towards the positive terminal. This combined
effect of movement of the charge carriers constitutes a current
known as drift current. Thus the drift current is defined as the
flow of electric current due to the motion of the charge carriers
under the influence of an external electric field.
DIFFUSION CURRENT:
It is possible for an electric current to flow in a semiconductor even in the
absence of the applied voltage provided a concentration gradient exists in the
material.
A concentration gradient exists if the number of either electrons or holes is
greater in one region of a semiconductor as compared to the rest of the
region. In a semiconductor material the charge carriers have the tendency to
move from the region of higher concentration to that of lower concentration
of the same type of charge carriers. Thus, the movement of charge carriers
takes place resulting in a current called diffusion current.
Diffusion current depends on the material of the semiconductor, type of
charge carriers and the concentration gradient.
TOTAL CURRENT IN A SEMICONDUCTOR:
When the electric field and concentration gradient exist simultaneously within
a semiconductor. In that case, the total current in a semiconductor is the sum
of drift current and diffusion current.
Diode junction capacitance

• in a p-n junction diode, two types of capacitance

take place. They are,
• Transition capacitance (CT)
• Diffusion capacitance (CD)
Diode junction capacitance

• Transition capacitance (CT)

• Just like the capacitors, a reverse biased p-n junction diode also stores electric
charge at the depletion region. The depletion region is made of immobile
positive and negative ions.
• In a reverse biased p-n junction diode, the p-type and n-type regions have low
resistance. Hence, p-type and n-type regions act like the electrodes or
conducting plates of the capacitor. The depletion region of the p-n junction
diode has high resistance. Hence, the depletion region acts like the dielectric
or insulating material. Thus, p-n junction diode can be considered as a parallel
plate capacitor.

• In depletion region, the electric charges (positive and negative ions) do not
move from one place to another place. However, they exert electric field or
electric force. Therefore, charge is stored at the depletion region in the form
of electric field. The ability of a material to store electric charge is called
capacitance. Thus, there exists a capacitance at the depletion region.
• The p-n junction diode with narrow depletion width and large p-type and n-
type regions will store large amount of electric charge whereas the p-n
junction diode with wide depletion width and small p-type and n-type regions
will store only a small amount of electric charge. Therefore, the capacitance of
the reverse bias p-n junction diode decreases when voltage increases.
In a forward biased diode, the transition capacitance exist. However, the transition
capacitance is very small compared to the diffusion capacitance. Hence, transition
capacitance is neglected in forward biased diode.
The change of capacitance at the depletion region can be defined as the change in electric
charge per change in voltage.
CT = dQ / dV
Diode junction capacitance
• The transition capacitance can be mathematically written as,
CT = ε A / W…………………..Where, ε = Permittivity of the semiconductor
A = Area of plates or p-type and n-type regions
W = Width of depletion region
Diffusion capacitance (CD)
• Diffusion capacitance occurs in a forward biased p-n junction diode
• The diffusion capacitance occurs due to stored charge of minority electrons
and minority holes near the depletion region.
• When forward bias voltage is applied to the p-n junction diode, the width of
depletion region decreases.
• The electrons (majority carriers) which cross the depletion region and enter
into the p-region will become minority carriers of the p-region similarly; the
holes (majority carriers) which cross the depletion region and enter into the
n-region will become minority carriers of the n-region.
The formula for diffusion capacitance is
CD = dQ / dV……Where, CD = Diffusion capacitance
dQ = Change in number of minority carriers stored outside the depletion
region
dV = Change in voltage applied across diode
• A large number of charge carriers, which try to move into
another region will be accumulated near the depletion region
before they recombine with the majority carriers. As a result, a
large amount of charge is stored at both sides of the depletion
region.
• The accumulation of holes in the n-region and electrons in the
p-region is separated by a very thin depletion region or
depletion layer. This depletion region acts like dielectric or
insulator of the capacitor and charge stored at both sides of the
depletion layer acts like conducting plates of the capacitor.
• Diffusion capacitance is directly proportional to the electric
current or applied voltage. If large electric current flows through
the diode, a large amount of charge is accumulated near the
depletion layer. As a result, large diffusion capacitance occurs.
 Diode applications
The diode conducts well in forward direction and
poorly in reverse direction. Because of this
characteristics the diodes are used in
• As rectifiers or power diodes in d.c. power supplies
• As signal diodes in communication
• As Zener diodes in voltage stabilizing circuits
• As varactor diodes in radio and tv receivers
• As a switch in logic circuits used in computers