Discrete Structure

Lec # 01

Sami Ullah Khan

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 Course Administration
• Exams and Assessment
– Basically 2 exams method Mid & Final
• 10 Sessional1
• 15 Sessional2
• 50 Final
• 25 Assignment/Quizes
– Eliminating one Exam suggests that there is a clear room
for more practical work (so you must start getting
worried about it !!!)

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 Course Requirements
• Assignments/Quizes
– Written assignments (Small Tasks) (details in coming
lectures)
– Idea is to initiate research oriented writing not “cut-
copy-paste”
– Attendance, Presentations, Quiz & Class Discussion &
Participation (as a regular activity)
– Sessional’s loot sale
– Formal Presentations in groups

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 How to get good marks?

• Requirements
– Overall Class Attitude
– Things to Avoid (Referencing, Cut-Copy-Paste Culture,
Carelessness, leg-pulling)
– Things to do (Confidence, Work Attitude)
– Sense of Maturity and continuous learning

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 Examination

• I personally believe in “thorough studies” so usually no choices given in

the exam
• Every thing discussed, during the class or given as reading material,
could be part of the exams
• Questions will be formulated in a way to examine both bookish as well
as conceptual thinking
• Other details will be given close to Sessional
• I will try to follow my simple rule that is
– “ I’ll be very friendly in the lectures and very strict in the exam hall
(believe me no chance of misconduct…)”

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 Course Objective:
• Express statements with the precision of
formal logic
• Analyze arguments to test their validity
• Apply the basic properties and operations
related to sets
• Apply to sets the basic properties and
operations related to relations and functions
• Define terms recursively
• Prove a formula using mathematical induction
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 Course Objective:
• Prove statements using direct and indirect
methods
• Compute probability of simple and conditional
events
• Identify and use the formulas of combinatory in
different problems
• Illustrate the basic definitions of graph theory and
properties of graphs
• Relate each major topic in Discrete Mathematics to
an application area in computing
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 Recommended Books:

• Discrete Mathematics with Applications (second edition) by

Susanna S. Epp

• Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications (fourth edition)

by Kenneth H. Rosen

• Discrete Mathematics by Ross and Wright

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What is Discrete ?

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Difference Between Discrete and Continuous

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Difference Between Discrete and Continuous

• Example of Discrete Data

• Number of boys in the class.
• Number of candies in a packet.
• Number of Suitcases lost by an airline.

• Example of Continuous Data

• Height of a person.
• Time in a Race.
• Distance traveled by a car.

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 WHY STUDY DISCRETE MATHEMATICS ?

 We study Discrete Mathematics because it is

necessary for understanding principle of CS
disciplines

 such as: data structures, algorithms, database

theory, formal languages, compiler theory,
artificial intelligence, operating systems,
computer security, and automata theory.

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 WHAT IS DISCRETE MATHEMATICS?

 Discrete structure is the study of mathematical

structures that are fundamentally discrete rather than
continuous.

 In contrast to real numbers that have the property of

varying “smoothly”, the objects studied in discrete
mathematics – such as integers, graphs, and
statements in logic- do not vary smoothly in this way ,
but have distinct, separate values.

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 WHAT IS DISCRETE MATHEMATICS?

 The mathematics of discrete (distinct and disconnected)

objects.
 In other words, it is the study of discrete objects and
relationships that bind them.
 The geometric representations of discrete objects have
gaps in them.
 For example, integers are discrete objects. On the other
hand, calculus deals with sets of connected (without gap)
objects. The set of real numbers and the set of points on a
plane are two such sets.
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 LOGIC
• Logic is the study of the principles and methods
that distinguishes between a valid and an invalid
argument.
Examples:
• x +1 = 1
• x≠0
• x>2
• x<3

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 SIMPLE STATEMENT
• A statement is a declarative sentence that is either
true or false but not both.
• A statement is also referred to as a proposition
Example: 2+2 = 4, It is Sunday today
• If a proposition is true, we say that it has a truth
value of "true”.
• If a proposition is false, its truth value is "false".
• The truth values “true” and “false” are, respectively,
denoted by the letters T and F.
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 Examples

Proposition Not Proposition

• Grass is green. • Close the door.

• 4+2=6 • x is greater than 2.
• 4+2=7 • He is very rich
• There are four fingers in
a hand.

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Rule:
If the sentence is preceded by other sentences that make the pronoun or
variable reference clear, then the sentence is a statement

Example: Example:
• x=1 • Bill Gates is an American
• x>2 • He is very rich
• x > 2 is a statement with • He is very rich is a statement
truth-value FALSE. with truth-value TRUE.

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 UNDERSTANDING STATEMENTS

Example:
 x + 2 is positive.  Not a statement
 May I come in?  Not a statement
 Logic is interesting.  A statement
 It is hot today.  A statement
 -1 > 0  A statement
 x + y = 12  Not a statement

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 COMPOUND STATEMENT

Compound Statement: Simple statements could be

used to build a compound statement. It is made by
Logical Connectivity.

Logical Connectivity: AND, OR, NOT are called Logical

Connectives.

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 COMPOUND STATEMENT

• EXAMPLES:

• “3 + 2 = 5” and “Lahore is a city in Pakistan”

• “The grass is green” or “ It is hot today”
• “Discrete Mathematics is not difficult to me”

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 SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION

Statements are symbolically represented by letters such as

p, q, r,...

EXAMPLES:
• p = “Islamabad is the capital of Pakistan”
• q = “17 is divisible by 3”

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 SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION

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 SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION
• EXAMPLES:
• p = “Islamabad is the capital of Pakistan”
• q = “17 is divisible by 3”
• p  q = “Islamabad is the capital of Pakistan and 17
is divisible by 3”
• p  q = “Islamabad is the capital of Pakistan or 17 is
divisible by 3”
• ~p = “It is not the case that Islamabad is the capital
of Pakistan” or simply
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 TRANSLATING FROM ENGLISH TO
SYMBOLS
Let p = “It is hot”, and q = “ It is sunny”
SENTENCE SYMBOLIC FORM
 It is not hot.  ~p
 It is hot and sunny.  p q
 It is hot or sunny.  pq
 It is not hot but sunny.  ~ p q
 It is neither hot nor  ~p~q
sunny.
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EXAMPLE

Let h = “Zia is healthy”

w = “Zia is wealthy”
s = “Zia is wise”

Translate the compound statements to symbolic form:

1.Zia is healthy and wealthy but not wise.

(h  w)  (~s)

2.Zia is not wealthy but he is healthy and wise.

~w  (h  s)

3.Zia is neither healthy, wealthy nor wise.

~h  ~w  ~s
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 TRANSLATING FROM SYMBOLS TO ENGLISH

Let
• m = “Ali is good in Mathematics”
• c = “Ali is a Computer Science student”

Translate the following statement forms into

plain English:

• ~c
• Ali is not a Computer Science student
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 TRANSLATING FROM SYMBOLS TO ENGLISH
Let
• m = “Ali is good in Mathematics”
• c = “Ali is a Computer Science student”

• cm
• Ali is a Computer Science student or good in Maths.

• m  ~c
• Ali is good in Maths but not a Computer Science student

• A convenient method for analyzing a compound statement is to

make a truth table for it.
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 TRUTH TABLE

A truth table specifies the truth value of a

compound proposition for all possible truth
values of its constituent propositions.

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 NEGATION (~)

• If p is a statement variable, then negation of p,

“not p”, is denoted as “~p”

• It has opposite truth value from p i.e., if p is

true, ~p is false; if p is false, ~p is true.

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 TRUTH TABLE FOR ~ p

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 CONJUNCTION ()

• If p and q are statements, then the conjunction

of p and q is “p and q”, denoted as “p  q”.

• It is true when, and only when, both p and q

are true. If either p or q is false, or if both are
false, pq is false.

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 CONJUNCTION ()

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 TRUTH TABLE FOR p  q

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 Logical and using 3 statements

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 DISJUNCTION () or INCLUSIVE OR

• If p & q are statements, then the disjunction of p

and q is “p or q”, denoted as “p  q”.

• It is true when at least one of p or q is true and is

false only when both p and q are false.

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DISJUNCTION () or INCLUSIVE OR

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 TRUTH TABLE FOR p  q

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 Inclusive OR Using 3 Statement

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 Truth Tables for:

Truth table for the statement form ~ p  q

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 Truth Tables for:

Truth table for ~ p  (q  ~ r)

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 Truth Tables for:

Truth table for (pq)  ~ (pq)

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 Double Negative Property ~(~p)

Example

“It is not true that I am not happy”

Solution:
Let p = “I am happy”
then ~ p = “I am not happy”
and ~(~ p) = “It is not true that I am not happy”
Since ~(~p)  p
Hence the given statement is equivalent to:
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 ~(pq) and ~p  ~q are not logically equivalent

Different truth values in row 2 and row 3

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 The End

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