DEBRE MARKOS UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF CIVIL AND WATER RESOURCE ENGINEERING

Chapter 2 Rail Line and Subgrade

Biniyam A 2022
Contents

• Economic survey and route selection of railway line

• Plane section design
• Longitudinal section design
 Introduction
• Rail line is the foundation of operation.
• It is a whole structure consisted of the roadbed, bridge
building and rail.
• Center line of the route is all about every Thing!
– Economy(cost)
– Safety
– Type of structures to design etc… all determined by CL.
– Station location
track
sleeper
Ballaste
d bed

Road bed
Typical ballasted
track section
 Economic survey and route selection
Three stages ：
1. Earlier stage: research, survey and preliminary design work.
2. Basic construction stage ： first to do the
measurement, technical design and construction design,
then begin to construct it, finally check it into
production.
3. Effect of feedback ： several years later, to evaluate the
design and construction quality by investigate the
engineering quality, technical index and economic benefits.
Construction + maintenance

Study and design

Feedback & evaluation
 Route selection…
Route selection criteria ： Balancing these
- shortest , direct route, parameters
and
- detour unsuitable geology, link important sites requirements
- Cost effective (user & construction)
- Minimum earthwork,
- locally materials,
- Environmental friendly
- aesthetic value etc.

target
 Track geometry components
• An important aspect of construction is track geometry
• The projection of the track alignment on horizontal plane:
Horizontal alignment
• The projection of the track alignment on vertical plane: Vertical
alignment

Theoretical • Gauge
(designed) track
• Horizontal alignment
Track geometry • Cant
Irregularity • Vertical alignment
(track quality)
 Track alignment
The track alignment is explicitly or
implicitly defined in a coordinate
system
Vertical (Z)
• The planar projection of center
line is called plane section of Space
curve
the rail; and its vertical North
projection is called (X)

longitudinal section of the rail.

• The plane section of the rail is Longitudinal distance
consisted of straight line and
Projection East
curve (circular curve and (Y)
easement curve).
• In the vertical direction:
gradients and vertical curves
and transition gradients
 1. Plane design
Locus of center of gravity position
of car body exists will take three
trajectories:
① curvature is zero: straight line ；
② curvature is constant: circle curve ；
③ curvature is variable: transition curve.

The main components of

Plane design:
1. Curves
2. Tangent/ straight lines
3. Easement/spiral curves
4. superelevation
8
 Constituent parts of the curve
The curve is set when the line turns or Types of curves
when two straight lines intersect. - simple/single
curve radius (R), - common
corner curve (α),
curve length (L)
Tangent length (T),
easement curve length (Lo) .

tangent length:

curve
length: Single curve
External length:

9
When considering Easement curve:

Common curve

10
 Straight tracks (tangent tracks)
Straight tracks (sometimes “tangent tracks”)
• Horizontal curvature (change of direction
per unit length of the track) is zero
• Shortest length between two points
• No quasi-static lateral acceleration, no
need for cant
• Smallest possible gap between a train and
a platform
• Easy to check the train doors at a
platform
• Possible to guide tamping machines with
laser beams
• Easy to install switches and crossings
 Straight tracks
• There is no requirement for limiting
the length of straight track, only
minimum length
• The world’s longest straight track:
Australia, 478 km
• The longest straight track in
Norway:
Kvineshei tunnel, 9020 m
(www.jernbaneverket.no
)
 Circular curve

Circular curves (sometimes “full curves”) with constant curve radius, R

• Constant horizontal curvature (change of direction per unit length of
the track)
• Constant quasi-static lateral acceleration (if the train runs at
constant
speed)
Sign rules: Track standards use to have no sign rules. Software use
minus values for left hand curves (in the direction of the chainage).
Hence: -20000 meter is a larger radius than -200 meter
 Circular curve
• The minimum radius is determined by the speed
– 30-60 m for tramways/metro lines
‐ 60-90 m on industrial railways
‐ Line speed for tramways/metro varies between 40 to 80 km/h

Recommended and minimum horizontal curve radius for v > 200 km/h:
Speed [km/h] 200 250 280 300 330 350
Recommended radius [m] 3200 5000 6300 7200 8700 9800
Minimum radius [m] 1888 2950 3700 4248 5140 5782

Note: use integer values for radius and

not larger than 99999 m
 Circular curve
• There area also speed-independent criteria
– There is a minimum radius for tracks in platforms and turnouts
(Minimum radius for platform tracks R = 300
All vehicles must be able to run on R = 150 m (UIC)
– Minimum radius for no gauge widening R = 200 m
– Minimum radius for CWR R = 250 - 300 m

• Minimum length of curves and tangent tracks - Lmin > 0.4v

• Minimum radius for mainline tracks R ≥ 300 m
 Circular curve
• The choice of the curve radius also depends on the characteristic of
bogie
the
Soft and rigid bogie suspension

Principal figure on how rails wear in curves

Tight curves and wide curve
 Circular curve effects
A vehicle running in a curve with radius R and speed v
experiences a centrifugal lateral acceleration a = v2/R this
results undesirable effects:
• possible passenger discomfort and noise nuisance
• possible displacement of wagon loads
• risk of vehicles overturning
• risk of derailment by wheel climbing or loosening of rail fastenings
 Circular curve effects
Corrective measures for the curving phenomena:
• Increase the radius of curvature, R
• Use superelevation (cant) to compensate the lateral acceleration
by
the gravity
• Reduction in train speed – not the best option
SUPERELEVATION (CANT)
 Superelevation (cant)
• Cant is a corrective measure for the curving phenomena to compensate
the
lateral acceleration

α
 Superelevation (cant)
Applied cant (sometimes “superelevation”) is the amount of which one
running rail is raised above the other inner rail
• On curves, positive cant indicates that the outer rail is raised above
the inner rail
 Equilibrium cant
Fnet  Fc  F ; Fnet Fc
g
Fg
Fc  cos  ; Fg  mg sin m.v2
mv
R 2
; R
For small angle   h ; F  mv ; F  mgh ;
2

s g
R s
At balanced speed Fnetc  0 so
mv 2 mgh 2 gh m.g
  v 
R s y
R α
Therefore at balanced speed the cant x
s g = gravity = 9.81 (m/s/s)
h  sv
2

gR R = curve radius (m)

The equilibrium cant expressed in mm α = cant angle (rad)

v = vehicle speed (m/s)
11.8  v 2
hth (mm)  s = track width (1500 mm)
(km/h)
R(m)
m = total mass of the vehicle
 Track plane acceleration
• In case of quasistatic curving: track plane acceleration is 𝑎 𝑦 , and
the acceleration normal to the track plane is 𝑎𝑧
𝑣2
𝑎𝑦 = ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − 𝑔 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
𝑅
𝑣2 ℎ
𝑎𝑦 ≈ −𝑔∙
𝑅 𝑠

• For a given cant an equilibrium

or balanced speed 𝑣𝑒𝑞 , (𝑎𝑦 = 0)
𝑅𝑔ℎ
𝑣𝑒𝑞 =
𝑠
 Maximum speed in curves
• The important formula
 𝑣2
−𝑔∙ℎ =𝑎 ≤
𝑎 𝑦
𝑅 𝑠
𝑦,𝑚𝑎𝑥
 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑔ℎ ∙𝑅
𝑠 + 𝑎 𝑦 ,𝑚 𝑎 𝑥

𝑎 𝑦,𝑚𝑎𝑥 Maximum allowed uncompensated lateral acceleration

 Applied cant limits
• Maximum applied cant on normal lines for high speed lines
 Applied cant & cant deficiency
• For a number of trains the cant is
either too much or not enough
• Too much cant wear the inner wheel-
rail and increase friction on wheel
flange and increases the tractive
power required
• Too less cant causes large increase in
wear on the high rail
• Not enough cant creates transvers
force which is detrimental for both
safety and comfort (risk for
derailment and track displacement)
 Cant deficiency (hd)
• Cant deficiency exists when the vehicle is travelling above balancing speed,
insufficient cant angle to cancel out lateral curving force
• The difference between the theoretical value of cant for maximum speed and the
applied value of cant

hd = ht (vmax) - ha < hd_all

𝑣2
ℎ
−𝑔∙ 𝑠𝑎 = 𝑎𝑦
𝑅
𝑣2
h +h
−𝑔∙ 𝑎 d
=0
𝑅
• The non compensated
𝑠 acceleration will be: ay = hd g/s
• With a non compensated acceleration of 1 m/s2 (maximum limit) and axle load
of 22.5 t, the quasi-static lateral load on the track is 22.5 kN
 Cant deficiency and maximum speed
• The maximum non compensated acceleration a d,𝑚𝑎𝑥 expressed in terms of
maximum cant deficiency hd_max
ay,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑔 hd,max
𝑠
Gives the maximum speed in circular curve expressed with hd_max
𝑔
𝑣 = ∙𝑅
𝑠 ℎ + h d,𝑚𝑎𝑥

h d,𝑚𝑎𝑥 Maximum allowable cant deficiency

 Example
• Given R=1600 m, s=1500 mm, h=150𝑚𝑚 g=10 m/s2, 𝑎𝑦,𝑚𝑎𝑥 =0.85
m/s2
• Balanced speed
𝑅𝑔ℎ
𝑣𝑒𝑞 = 𝑠
= 1600𝑚∙10𝑚/𝑠 2 ∙150𝑚𝑚
1500𝑚𝑚 = 40 m/s = 144 km/h
• maximum speed
𝑣2 −𝑔∙ℎ =
𝑎 𝑦,𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑅 𝑠
𝑔ℎ ∙𝑅 = 10∙150 1600 = 54 m/s
𝑣 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑠 + 𝑎 𝑦 ,𝑚 𝑎 𝑥 1500 + 0.85
= 195 km/h
 Example
• Given v=240 km/h, s=1500 mm, h = 150 mm, g=10m/s2,
𝑎𝑦,𝑚𝑎𝑥 =0.85 m/s2

𝑣2
− 𝑔 ∙ ℎ 𝑚 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑦,𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑅 𝑠
2
240
𝑣2 ൗ3. = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝐦
𝑅= =
𝑔ℎ 𝑚𝑎𝑥 10 ∙ 1506 + 0.85
𝑠 + 𝑎 𝑦,𝑚𝑎𝑥 1500
 High speed – large curve radius
 Cant deficiency limits
• Limits for cant deficiency 𝑎 𝑦,𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑜𝑟 ℎ 𝑑,𝑚𝑎𝑥 takes into account forces in
the wheel/rail interface as well as comfort or load displacements and
safety against derailment
• A vehicle must be tested and approved for its permissible cant
deficiency, according to procedures in UIC 518 or EN 14363
• Limits for train categories in Europe ranges from 92 mm (certain
freight cars) to 300 mm (tilting trains)
Santiago de Compostela, Spania, 24.
juli 2013
 Santiago de Compostela, Spania, 24.
juli 2013
Geometry parameters and speed:
• Given: R = 300 m, h = 150 mm
• Recommended speed: V = 80 km/t  hd = 100
mm
• Real speed: V = 190 km/t  hd = 1271 mm ;

This corresponds to the lateral acceleration of ay ≈ 9,3 m/s2

The consequence 
 Cant excess (he)
• Cant excess exists when the vehicle speed is lower than the balanced speed
• This can result in reduced passenger comfort but also a risk of roll-over for
vehicles with a high centre of gravity travelling at low speed, such as
freight vehicles
• The difference between the applied value of cant and the theoretical value
of cant for minimum speed
he = ha - hth (Vmin)

Cant excess he limits:

• Tracks with radius > 1000 m : Max. 100 mm

• Tracks with radius < 1000 m : Max. 70 mm

TRANSITION CURVES
 Transition curves
• On a straight line, curvature is zero, while on a curve of radius R
curvature is 1/R
• Transition curves also introduce gauge widening
Often desired to have integer values for the lengths of transition curves
CANT TRANSITION
 Cant transitions
Cant transitions (sometimes “superelevation ramps”):
• The transition between straight and curved sections requires variation of
cant
• The cant is changing as a function of chainage
• At tangent points, connected elements should have the same cant value
• Normally, the mathematical form for a cant transition is the same as for the
transition curve. Hence, for clothoids, the cant transitions are linear
 Cant transitions
Cant transitions (sometimes “superelevation ramps”):
• Cant is introduced by means of transition gradients 𝜌 = ∆ℎ
∆𝐿
• In many railways the maximum cant is limited to 150-160
mm
• As to the alignment, the cant variation is one of the major causes for
lateral vibration in railway vehicle
In many countries, cant transitions on straight tracks and circular curves are
acceptable only in diverging tracks near a canted turnout
 Cant transitions
• Cant transitions should normally coincide with transition curves (having
the same length and tangent points)
Criteria for cant transitions:
• A general maximum limit of cant gradient ∆h/∆L < 1/400 (2.5%0)
taking into account wheel unloading ---- for h=150mm, min Lt = 60 m
 Rate of change of cant
Rate of change of cant ∆𝑫 will occur instead of an abrupt change
of applied cant, where transition curves are used

∆ℎ
Rate of change of cant is defined as change in cant per time ∆𝐷 = ∆𝑡

• A limit for rate of change of cant (in mm/s),

dh/dt = ∆ha * V / (Lh * 3.6) ≤ (dha/dt)lim=
∆𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥
Lh≥ ha* V / ∆𝑫𝒎𝒂𝒙

– Typical values for the limit is in the range 28-70

mm/s
 Rate of change of lateral acceleration
Rate of change of lateral acceleration (jerk) 𝛙:
Jerk is defined as change in non-compensated acceleration per
time day
𝜓=
d𝑡

∆ay/∆t =ay*v/Lh ≤ (day/dt)lim= 𝜓 𝑚𝑎𝑥

Lh≥ ay *v/𝜓 𝑚𝑎𝑥

 Transition curve and cant transition length

• There are three requiremnts

1. Requirment for maximum cant transition,
considering risk for derailment
ℎ
𝐿1 ≥
𝜌𝑚 𝑎 𝑥
2. Requiremnt for rate of change of cant
transition, considering comfort
ℎ
𝐿2 ≥ 𝑣 ∙
∆𝐷𝑚 𝑎 𝑥
3. Requiremnt to jerk, also considering
comfort
ay
𝐿3 ≥ 𝑣 ∙
𝜓𝑚 𝑎 𝑥
 Example: Transition curve length

Given V= 180 km/h (50 m/s), h= 100 mm, 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑎𝑦,𝑚𝑎𝑥 =0.65 m/s2

• Requirment 1
ℎ 100
𝐿1 ≥ = =
𝜌𝑚 𝑎 𝑥 40.0 m 2.5
• Requirment 2
ℎ 100
𝐿2 ≥ 𝑣 ∙ = 50 ∙ =
∆𝐷𝑚 𝑎 𝑥 178.6 m
28
• Requirment 3
𝑎𝑦 = 50 ∙ 0.65 = 203.1 m
𝐿3 ≥ 𝑣 ∙
𝜓𝑚 𝑎 𝑥 0.16

The rquirment for jerk will govern the design L=203.1

m
 Example: Transition curve length when 𝑎𝑦 is
not given
Given R = 1000 m, V= 90 km/h (25 m/s), h= 60
mm
• Requirment 1 ℎ 60
𝐿1 ≥ = =
𝜌𝑚 𝑎 𝑥 24.0 m 2.5
• Requirment 2
ℎ 60
𝐿2 ≥ 𝑣 ∙ = 25 ∙ =
∆𝐷𝑚 𝑎 𝑥 53.6 m
28
• Requirment 3 msut be calculated
𝑣 2 ℎ 252 60
𝑎𝑦 = −𝑔∙ − 9.81 ∙ = 0.233 m/s2 ≤ 𝑎 − 𝑂𝐾!
𝑅 𝑠 1000 1500 𝑦,𝑚𝑎𝑥
= 𝑎𝑦 = 25 ∙ 0.233 = 36.3 m
𝐿3 ≥ 𝑣 ∙
𝜓𝑚 𝑎 𝑥 0.16

L = 53.6
m