ESE 3123 Thermo-fluid Devices

Pipe flow: Dimensional analysis using Buckingham Pi theorem; Hydraulic diameter, flow regimes based
on Reynolds number, entrance region; Laminar flow in pipes, entrance region and velocity profile, fully
developed flow and average velocity, pressure drop and head loss; Turbulent velocity profile in pipes,
use of Moody Chart and Colebrook equation; Major and minor losses; Flow rate and velocity
measurement – pitot tube, obstruction flow meters, rotameter, turbine flow meters.
Compressible flow: Distinction between compressible and incompressible flow, One-dimensional
isentropic compressible flow; Variation of flow velocity with area, flow through converging-diverging
nozzle and chocking; Shock wave.
Pump Compressor and Blowers: Classification of turbomachinery; Water horsepower, brake
horsepower, efficiency for pumps; Pump performance curve, pump sizing for piping systems;
Cavitation and net positive suction head; Pump Scaling laws, pump specific speed, affinity laws; Fans,
blowers and compressors, compressor intercooling.
Heat Exchangers: Classification of heat exchangers, Overall heat transfer coefficient, fouling factor;
Analysis using LMTD and NTU method, Design of double-pipe heat exchangers, design of shell-and-
tube heat exchangers and TEMA standards.
Reference Books:
1. Fluid Mechanics Fundamentals and Applications, 3rd ED. – Yunus A. Cengel, John M. Cimbala.
2. A text book of Fluid mechanics by R.K. Rajput
3. Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 7th ED. – Frank P. Incropera, David P. DeWitt et al.
4. Process Heat Transfer Principle, Application and Rules of Thumb, 2 nd ED – Robert W. Serth, Thomas
G. Lestine.
5. Heat Transfer in Process Engineering – Eduardo Cao.
 Compressible Flow

Dhaval Jalalpara A.
Incompressible Flow

In this fluid ,the density of the flowing fluid is

constant during the process of flow

Compressible Flow

In this fluid ,the density of fluid does not remain

constant during the process of flow. In other
words the density of the fluid changes from
point to point in compressible flow.
All real fluid are compressible fluid flow. But in some cases,
i.e. flow of liquids which undergo only small changes in
density even over wide range of velocity and pressure
changes. If the relative change in density is small, the fluid
can be treated as incompressible. A compressible fluid such
as air can be considered as incompressible with constant if
changes in elevation are small, acceleration is small and
temperature changes are negligible.

Hence liquid flow can be assumed incompressible fluid flow.

Example of compressible flow.

a) Flow of gases through nozzles and orifices.

b) Flow of gases in compressors.
c) The flight of projectiles and aero planes moving at
high altitude with high velocity.
d) Water hammer and acoustics.
 Basic Thermodynamics Processes

 According to a law of P V n  constant

Process Description Result of IGL

P1 P2
isochoric constant volume (V1 = V2) 
T1 T2
V1 V2
isobaric constant pressure (P1 = P2) 
T1 T2
Isothermal constant temperature
(T1 = T2)
P1V1  P2V2
process pv

=
Adiabatic constant entropy (S1 = S2) =
process
Perfect gas (Ideal gas) is the one where the intermolecular forces are not
considered. Most of the gases present in the universe behave as perfect gases
at a very high temperature and low pressures. It is defined as the equation
which gives the relationship between the pressure, temperature and specific
volume of a gas.
We know

Taking log on both side, we get

Upon differentiation, we have

Since R is constant for a particular Gas, its derivative is zero

=0…..(1)
This is the differential equation of perfect gas
 Ideal Gas Relationship

 The equation of state for an ideal

gas: 𝑃
𝜌=
𝑅𝑇
 Change in internal energy:
𝑑𝑢=𝑐 𝑣 𝑑𝑇
 Change in enthalpy:
𝑑h =𝑐 𝑝 𝑑𝑇

 Relationship between cp and cv,

𝑐 𝑝 −𝑐 𝑣 =𝑅
 Ideal Gas Relationship (Cont.)

 Changes in entropy, ds:

Or,

𝑇2 𝜌1 𝑇2 𝑃2
𝑐 𝑣 ln + 𝑅 ln =𝑐 𝑃 ln − 𝑅 ln =0
𝑇1 𝜌2 𝑇1 𝑃1
 Relationship among temperature, density and pressure:

( ) ( ) ( )
𝑘 𝑘
𝑇2 ( 𝑘 − 1) 𝜌2 𝑃2
= =
𝑇1 𝜌1 𝑃1
 Also, constant
 Entropy Change in Ideal Gas
Let,
Q = Heat energy
W = Work done
u = Internal energy
h = Enthalpy
v = Specific volume
P = Pressure Or,
T = Absolute temperature
Energy equation for closed system, Or,

Or, which is the “First Tds equation”

Or,

Or,

Or,
Entropy Change in Ideal Gas (Cont.)
Or,

Or,

Or, (1)

For isentropic process, and from equation (1) we get,

(2)

Again,

Or,

Or, which is the “Second Tds equation”

Or,
Entropy Change in Ideal Gas (Cont.)

Or,
or,
Or,

Or,

Or, (3)

For isentropic process, and from equation (3) we get,

(4)

From equation (2) and (4) we get,

Entropy Change in Ideal Gas (Cont.)
From equation (2) we get,

𝑅
𝑐 𝑣=
Or, 𝑘 −1

Or,

Or,

Or,

Or,

Or, (5)
Entropy Change in Ideal Gas (Cont.)
From equation (4) we get,

𝑅𝑘
Or, 𝑐𝑝=
𝑘−1
Or,

Or,

Or,

Or, (6)
Entropy Change in Ideal Gas (Cont.)

From equation (5) and (6) we get,

Or,

Or,

Or,
 Fluid Dynamics
Laminar (steady) flow is where each particle in
the fluid moves along a smooth path, and the
paths do not cross.

Streamlines spacing measures velocity and the

flow is always tangential, for steady flow don’t
cross. A set of streamlines act as a pipe for an
incompressible fluid

Non-viscous flow – no internal friction (water

OK, honey not)

Turbulent flow above a critical speed, the paths

become irregular, with whirlpools and paths
crossing. Chaotic and not considered here.
Conservation of Mass: The Continuity Eqn.
A Continuity equations or transport equation is an equation that
describes the transport of some quantity (Fluid : Gas, fluid) In any
steady state process , the rate at which mass enters the system is equal
to the rae at which mass leaves a system.

“The water all has to go somewhere”

The rate a fluid enters a pipe must equal the rate the fluid leaves the pipe.
i.e. There can be no sources or sinks of fluid.
• The product of cross-sectional area of pipe and the
fluid speed at any point along the pipe is constant
Δt
Derivation Mass at the inlet
m1 =  x V
= 1 * A1*Δx1
Δt =1 *A1 *v1 *Δt
Mass at the Outlet
m2=  xV
Distance (S) = velocity (v) X time(t) = 2 * A2* Δx2
Δx1 = v1 x Δt =2*A2 *v2 *Δt
Δx2 = v2 x Δt Assume, Fluid incompressible and steady flow
=m/v, m = xv Inlet fluid of mass at inlet is equal to
Volume = Area X distance the outlet of the fluid
V= Ax Δx
• For Incompressible fluid means is the density
of inlet and outlet fluid is same,
1 = 2
Law of conservation, m1 (mass flow rate)= mass flow rate
(m2)
Mass at the inlet Mass at the outlet
m1=1 *A1 *v1 *Δt m2 =2 *A2 *v2*Δt
 *A1 *v1 *Δt = *A2 *v2 *Δt
 A1 v1 Δt =  A2 v2 Δt
 A1 v1 Δt =  A2 v2 Δt
 A1 v1 =  A2 v2 Mass flow rate

Multiplying by g
g A1 v1 = g A2 v2
 gA1 v1 = gA2 v2
Specific weight () = g

1A1 v1 = 2A2 v2 Weight flow rate

1= 2
A1 v1 = A2 v2 =Q Volume flow rate
A v = constant Continuity Eqn.

The product of cross-sectional area of pipe and the fluid velocity at any point along
the pipe is constant.
AΔx V [ volume V=AΔx]
Δt
=
Δt
= constant
Change of volume per unit time is flow rate
In case of one- dimensional flow,
Mass per second = (where = mass density, = area of cross-section, = velocity)
Since the mass or mass per second is constant according to law of
conservation of mass, therefore,
= constant
Differentiating the above equation, we get
=0 (
=0
=0
=0
Dividing both sides by
=0
=0……..(1)
Eqn (1) is also known as equation of continuity in differential form.
 Conservation of Mass: The Continuity Eqn.
A1 A2

fluid in  fluid out 

v1 v2
Q. How much fluid flows across each area in a time : v2Dt
v1Dt

A1 A2

m   V1   A1 v1t m   V2   A2 v2 t

m
flow rate :   Av continuity eqn : A1v1  A2 v2
t
 Momentum equation
Net force acting on a fluid mass = change in momentum of flow per
unit time in that direction

)
)=rate of change of momentum
The momentum equation for compressible fluids is similar to the
one for incompressible fluids. This is because in momentum
equation the change in momentum flux is equated to force required
to cause this change.
Momentum flux = mass flux X velocity =
But the mass flux i.e. = constant ( By continuity equation)
Thus the momentum equation is completely independent of the
compressibility effects and hence for compressible fluids too the
momentum equation, say in X-direction, may be expressed as = 2 1
Conservation of Mass: The Continuity Eqn.
Q. A river is 40m wide, 2.2m deep and flows at 4.5 m/s. It passes
through a 3.7-m wide gorge, where the flow rate increases to 6.0
m/s. How deep is the gorge?

𝐴 2=𝑤 2 𝑑 2
𝐴1=𝑤 1 𝑑1
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐴 1 𝑣 1= 𝐴2 𝑣 2→ 𝑤 1 𝑑1 𝑣 1=𝑤 2 𝑑 2 𝑣 2
𝑤 1 𝑑 1 𝑣 1 40 × 2.2× 4.5
𝑑 2= = =18 𝑚
𝑤2𝑣 2 3.7 × 6.0
Where is the continuity equation used?
• Transportation
• Flow of fluid
• Pipe,Tube, river, Q=A V
• Q/A= V
As the flow of compressible flow is steady,
We know from Euler Equation.
=0
Integrating both sides, We get,
=constant
=constant……(1)
of Bernoulli equation
of Bernoulli equation
In compressible flow since is not constant it cannot be taken outside the
integrating sign. In compressible fluids the pressure () changes with change of
density (), depending on the type of process.
 Bernoulli’s equation for isothermal process
• In case of an isothermal process,
• = C1 == p/c1
= constant
=constant=(say) where

From equation=constant……(1)

Hence
)
Substituting the value of in equation (1), we get.
=constant……(2)
Dividing both sides by g, we get
=constant……(3)
The eqn.(2) is the Bernoulli’s equation for compressible flow undergoing
isothermal process.
 Bernoulli’s equation for adiabatic process
• In case of an Adiabatic process,
• = C2 = 
=constant=

From equation=constant……(1)

Hence
) [1/k+1-1/k]

Substituting the value of in equation (1), we get.

=constant……(2)
Dividing both sides by g, we get
=constant……(3)
The eqn.(3) is the Bernoulli’s equation for compressible flow undergoing
adiabatic process.
 Mach Number and Speed of Sound
 The Mach number,Ma, is a dimensionless parameter
and a
 measure of compressibility
Mach number: in a fluidlocal
The ratio between flow.flow velocity and local sound
speed, V
Ma 
c
 Incompressible subsonic flow: Ma ≤ 0.3
 Compressible subsonic flow: 0.3 ˂ Ma ˂ 1.0
 Compressible sonic flow: Ma =1.0
 Compressible supersonic flow: Ma ˃ 1.0
 Transonic flow: 0.9 ˂ Ma ˂ 1.20
 Hypersonic flow: Ma ˃ 5.0
What is sound!
 What we perceive as sound generally consists of weak pressure pulses
that move through air with Ma = 1. When our ear drums respond to a
succession of moving pressure pulses we hear sound.
 One-dimensional Isentropic Flow

pp
pp

Fig : (a) Weak pressure pulse moving through a fluid at rest, (b) The flow relative to a
control volume containing a weak pressure pulse (Ref Book: Munsoon).
Consider an infinitesimally thin, weak pressure pulse moving at the speed of sound
through a fluid at rest (Fig. a). Ahead of the pressure pulse the fluid velocity is zero
and fluid pressure and density are P and  respectively. Behind the pressure pulse,
the fluid velocity has changed by an amount  V, and the pressure and density have
also changed by amounts p and  respectively. We consider an infinitesimally thin
control volume that moves with the pressure pulse. For an observer moving with this
control volume, it appears as if the fluid is entering the control volume through
surface area A, speed c, pressure P, density  and leaving the control volume
through surface area A, speed (c   V), pressure (p   p) and density    .
One-dimensional Isentropic Flow (Cont.)
Applying continuity equation to the control volume,

Or,

Neglecting second order term(s) of smaller quantity,

Again from linear momentum equation,

(Eq. 5.29 of text book)
Or,

Again neglecting higher order term(s),

Or,
Or,
 One-dimensional Isentropic Flow (Cont.)
Thus, from continuity and linear momentum equation,
Or,
Now, from energy equation we get,

For gas is negligible and for frictionless flow . So the energy equation
becomes,

Or,
Or,
Or,
Thus, from continuity and energy equation,
or,
One-dimensional Isentropic Flow (Cont.)
For isentropic flows,

Now, for isentropic flows,

So,

Thus, for an ideal gas,