BBFE 21342– Management Information Systems

Topic 05 – Databases and

Information Management

Mr. Jayanath Samarawickrama

B.Sc. Bus. Admin. (Information Systems) (Sp.) (USJ), M.Sc.
(Computer Science) (USJ), MCS (SL)
Lecturer

Department of Finance

E-Mail – [email protected]

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 Learning Outcomes

• Describe the term ‘Business Intelligence’

• Discuss the importance of databases
• Describe the key concepts of relational databases
• Design databases for business organizations
using the Entity Relationship model

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Topic Outline

Managing Entity
Data Relationship
Resources Modelling

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Managing Data Resources

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 Business Intelligence

• Business intelligence (BI) refers to the procedural and

technical infrastructure that collects, stores, and
analyzes the data produced by a company’s activities.

• BI is a broad term that encompasses data mining,

process analysis, performance benchmarking, and
descriptive analytics. BI parses all the data generated
by a business and presents easy-to-digest reports,
performance measures, and trends that inform
management decisions.
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 Business Intelligence – Key Takeaways

• BI represents the technical infrastructure that collects, stores, and

analyzes company data.
• BI parses data and produces reports and information that help
managers to make better decisions.
• Software companies produce BI solutions for companies that wish
to make better use of their data.
• BI tools and software come in a wide variety of forms such as
spreadsheets, reporting/query software, data visualization
software, data mining tools, and online analytical processing
(OLAP).
• Self-service BI is an approach to analytics that allows individuals
without a technical background to access and explore data.
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 Types of BI Tools and Software

Data visualization software:

Spreadsheets: Spreadsheets Reporting software: Data visualization software
like Microsoft Excel and Reporting software is used to translates datasets into easy-
Google Docs are some of the report, organize, filter, and to-read, visually appealing
most widely used BI tools. display data. graphical representations to
quickly gain insights.

Data mining tools: Data Online analytical processing

mining tools "mine" large (OLAP): OLAP tools allow
amounts of data for patterns users to analyze datasets from
using things like artificial a wide variety of angles based
intelligence, machine on different business
learning, and statistics. perspectives.

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 Introduction - Databases

• Relational databases underlie most

modern integrated information systems.
– They are the most popular type of database used
for transaction processing.
– In this lesson, we’ll define the concept of a
database.

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 File Organization Terms and Concepts

• Bit: Smallest unit of data; binary digit (0,1)

• Byte: Group of bits that represents a single character

• Field: Group of words or a complete number

• Record: Group of related fields

• File: Group of records of same type

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 File Organization Terms and Concepts

• Database: Group of related files

• Entity: Person, place, thing, event about which

information is maintained

• Attribute: Description of a particular entity

• Key field: Identifier field used to retrieve, update,

sort a record
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Organizing Data in a Traditional File
Environment

The Data Hierarchy

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 Problems with the Traditional File
Environment

Data Redundancy and Inconsistency:

• Data redundancy: The presence of duplicate data

in multiple data files so that the same data are
stored in more than one place or location

• Data inconsistency: The same attribute may have

different values.

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 Problems with the Traditional File
Environment

Program-data dependence:

• The coupling of data stored in files and the specific programs

required to update and maintain those files such that changes
in programs require changes to the data

Lack of flexibility:

• A traditional file system can deliver routine scheduled reports

after extensive programming efforts, but it cannot deliver ad-
hoc reports or respond to unanticipated information
requirements in a timely fashion.
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 Problems with the Traditional File
Environment

Poor security:
• Because there is little control or management of data, management
will have no knowledge of who is accessing or even making
changes to the organization’s data.
Lack of data sharing and availability:
• Information cannot flow freely across different functional areas or
different parts of the organization. Users find different values of the
same piece of information in two different systems, and hence they
may not use these systems because they cannot trust the accuracy
of the data.

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Organizing Data in a
Traditional File Environment

Traditional File Processing

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The Database Approach to Data
Management
Database Management System (DBMS)
• Software for creating and maintaining databases

• Permits firms to rationally manage data for the

entire firm

• Acts as interface between application programs

and physical data files

• Separates logical and design views of data

• Solves many problems of the traditional data file

approach BBFE 21342– Management Information Syste 16
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The Database Approach to Data
Management
The Contemporary Database Environment

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The Database Approach to Data
Management

Types of Databases:

• Relational DBMS

• Hierarchical and network DBMS

• Object-oriented databases

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 The Database Approach to Data
Management

Relational DBMS:

• Represents data as two-dimensional tables called

relations

• Relates data across tables based on common

data element

• Examples: DB2, Oracle, MS SQL Server

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The Database Approach to
Data Management
The Relational Data Model

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 The Relational Data Model

Let’s examine some basic principles about how data are stored in
computer systems.
– An entity is anything about which the organization wishes to store data. At your
college or university, one entity would be the student.

STUDENTS

Phone
Student ID Last Name First Name Number Birth Date

333-33-3333 Simpson Alice 333-3333 10/11/84

111-11-1111 Sanders Ned 444-4444 11/24/86

123-45-6789 Moore Artie 555-5555 04/20/85

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 The Relational Data Model

– Informationabout the attributes of an entity (e.g., the student’s

ID number and birth date) are stored in fields.

STUDENTS

Phone
Student ID Last Name First Name Number Birth Date

333-33-3333 Simpson Alice 333-3333 10/11/84

111-11-1111 Sanders Ned 444-4444 11/24/86

123-45-6789 Moore Artie 555-5555 04/20/85

22 of 95

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The Relational Data Model

– All the fields containing data about one entity (e.g.,

one student) form a record.
– The example below shows the record for Artie Moore.

STUDENTS

Phone
Student ID Last Name First Name Number Birth Date

333-33-3333 Simpson Alice 333-3333 10/11/84

111-11-1111 Sanders Ned 444-4444 11/24/86

123-45-6789 Moore Artie 555-5555 04/20/85

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The Relational Data Model

– A set of all related records forms a file (e.g., the student file).
– If this university only had three students and five fields for each
student, then the entire file would be depicted below.

STUDENTS

Phone
Student ID Last Name First Name Number Birth Date

333-33-3333 Simpson Alice 333-3333 10/11/84

111-11-1111 Sanders Ned 444-4444 11/24/86

123-45-6789 Moore Artie 555-5555 04/20/85

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The Relational Data Model

– A set of interrelated, centrally coordinated files forms a

database.

Student Class
File File

Advisor
File
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Importance and Advantages of Database
Systems

• Database technology provides the following

benefits to organizations:
• Achieved by combining master
– Data integration files into larger pools of data
accessible by many programs.

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Importance and Advantages of Database
Systems

• Database technology provides the following

benefits to organizations:
– Data integration
• It’s easier to share data that’s
– Data sharing integrated.

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Importance and Advantages of Database
Systems

• Database technology provides the following

benefits to organizations:
– Data integration
– Data sharing
– Reporting flexibility
• Reports can be revised easily and generated as
needed.
• The database can easily be browsed to research
problems or obtain detailed information.

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 Importance and Advantages of Database
Systems

• Database technology provides the following benefits to

organizations:
– Data integration
– Data sharing
– Reporting flexibility
– Minimal data redundancy and
inconsistencies • Because data items are usually
stored only once.

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Importance and Advantages of Database
Systems

• Database technology provides the following

benefits to organizations:
– Data int
egration
Data items are independent of the programs that
use them.
– Data sh
aringConsequently, a data item can be changed without changing

– Reporti
ng flexibility
the program and vice versa.
Makes programming easier and simplifies data management.
– Minimal
data redundancy and inconsistencies
– Data independence

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Importance and Advantages of Database
Systems

• Database technology provides the following

benefits to organizations:
– Data integration
– Data sharing

– Reporting fl
exibility
Data management is more efficient because the database
administrator is responsible for coordinating, controlling,
– Minimal dat a redundancy and inconsistencies ndence
and managing data.
– Data indepe
– Central management of data

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 Importance and Advantages of Database
Systems

• Database technology provides the following benefits to

organizations:
– Data integration
– Data sharing
– Reporting flexibility
– Minimal d Relationships
ata can be explicitly defined and used in the
redundancy and inconsistencies
preparation of management reports.
– Data inde EXAMPLE:
pendence anagement of data
Relationship between selling costs and promotional
– Central m campaigns.

– Cross-functional analysis

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Database Systems

• Logical and Physical Views of Data

– In file-oriented systems, programmers must
know the physical location and layout of
records used by a program.
• They must reference the location, length, and
format of every field they utilize.
• When data is used from several files, this process
becomes more complex.

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Database Systems

• Database systems overcome this problem by

separating the storage and use of data
elements.
– Two separate views of the data are provided:
• Logical view
 How the user or programmer conceptually
organizes and understands the data.

• Physical view
 How and where the data are physically
arranged and stored.
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Database Systems

• Database systems overcome this problem by

separating the storage and use of data elements.
– Two separate views of the data are provided:
• Logical view
• Physical view
– Separating these views facilitates application
development, because programmers can
focus on coding the logic and not be
concerned with storage details.

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Logical View—User A Logical View—User B
Enrollment by Class Scholarship Distribution
Fr.
5%
Sr. Soph.
33% 24%

Jr.
38%

The DBMS translates

DBMS users’ logical views
into instructions as to
which data should be
Operating retrieved from the
System database.

Database
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Logical View—User A Logical View—User B
Enrollment by Class Scholarship Distribution
Fr.
5%
Sr. Soph.
33% 24%

Jr.
38%

DBMS
The operating system
Operating translates DBMS
System requests into
instructions to
physically retrieve
data from various
Database disks.

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Database Systems

• The DBMS handles the link between the

physical and logical views of the data.
– Allows the user to access, query, and update data
without reference to how or where it is
physically stored.
– The user only needs to define the logical data
requirements.

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Database Systems

• Separating the logical and physical views of data

also means users can change their conceptualizations
of the data relationships without making changes in
the physical storage.
• The database administrator can also change the
physical storage of the data without affecting users
or application programs.

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Database Systems

• Schemas
– A schema describes the logical structure of a database.
– There are three levels of schema.
• Conceptual level

•The organization-wide view of the entire

database—i.e., the big picture.
•Lists all data elements and the relationships between
them.

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Subschema--User A Subschema--User B Subschema--User C
Smith . . . A
Jones . . . B

Arnold . . .D

Mapping external-level views to conceptual-level schema

Classes Enroll Student

Cash
Receipt

Mapping conceptual-level items to internal-level descriptions

Student Record Class Record

Student No. --character [9] Class Name --character [9]
Student Name --character [26] Dept No. --integer [4], non-null, index=itemx
SAT Score --integer [2], non-null, index=itemx Course No. --integer [4], non-null, index=itemx
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Database Systems

• Schemas
– A schema describes the logical structure of a
database.
– There are three levels of schema.
• Conceptual level
• External level
• A set of individual user views of portions of
the database, i.e., how each user sees the
portion of the system with which he
interacts.
• These individual views are referred to as
subschema.
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 Subschema--User A Subschema--User B Subschema--User C
Smith . . . A
Jones . . . B

Arnold . . .D

Mapping external-level views to conceptual-level schema

Classes Enroll Student

Cash
Receipt

Mapping conceptual-level items to internal-level descriptions

Student Record Class Record

Student No. --character [9] Class Name --character [9]
Student Name --character [26] Dept No. --integer [4], non-null, index=itemx
SAT Score --integer [2], non-null, index=itemx Course No. --integer [4], non-null, index=itemx
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Database Systems

• Schemas
– A schema describes the logical structure of a
database.
– There are three levels of schema.
• Conceptual level• A low-level view of the database.
• External level • It describes how the data are actually
stored and accessed including:
• Internal level – Record layouts
– Definitions
– Addresses
– Indexes
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 Subschema--User A Subschema--User B Subschema--User C
Smith . . . A
Jones . . . B

Arnold . . .D

Mapping external-level views to conceptual-level schema

Classes Enroll Student

Cash
Receipt

Mapping conceptual-level items to internal-level descriptions

Student Record Class Record

Student No. --character [9] Class Name --character [9]
Student Name --character [26] Dept No. --integer [4], non-null, index=itemx
SAT Score --integer [2], non-null, index=itemx Course No. --integer [4], non-null, index=itemx
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 Subschema--User A Subschema--User B Subschema--User C
Smith . . . A
Jones . . . B

Arnold . . .D

Mapping external-level views to conceptual-level schema

The
Classes Enroll Student bidirectional
arrows
represent
mappings
Cash
between the
Receipt
schema.

Mapping conceptual-level items to internal-level descriptions

Student Record Class Record

Student No. --character [9] Class Name --character [9]
Student Name --character [26] Dept No. --integer [4], non-null, index=itemx
SAT Score --integer [2], non-null, index=itemx Course No. --integer [4], non-null, index=itemx
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 Database Systems

• The DBMS uses the mappings to translate a

request by a user or program for data
(expressed in logical names and relationships)
into the indexes and addresses needed to
physically access the data.

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Database Systems

• The Data Dictionary

– A key component of a DBMS is the data
dictionary.
• Contains information about the structure of the
database.
• For each data element, there is a corresponding
record in the data dictionary describing that
element.

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Database Systems

• Information provided for each element includes:

– A description or explanation of the element.
– The records in which it is contained.
– Its source.
– The length and type of the field in which it is stored.
– The programs in which it is used.
– The outputs in which it is contained.
– The authorized users of the element.
– Other names for the element.
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Database Systems

• The DBMS usually maintains the data dictionary.

– It is often one of the first applications of a newly
implemented database system.
– Inputs to the dictionary include:
• Records of new or deleted data elements.
• Changes in names, descriptions, or uses of existing
elements.
– Outputs include:
• Reports that are useful to programmers, database designers, and IS
users in:
– Designing and implementing the system.
– Documenting the system.
– Creating an audit trail.
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Database Systems

• DBMS Languages
– Every DBMS must provide a means of
performing the three basic functions of:
• Creating a database
• Changing a database
• Querying a database

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Database Systems

• Creating a database:
– The set of commands used to create the
database is known as data definition
language (DDL). DDL is used to:
• Build the data dictionary
• Initialize or create the database
• Describe the logical views for each individual user or
programmer
• Specify any limitations or constraints on security
imposed on database records or fields
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Database Systems

• Changing a database
– The set of commands used to change the
database is known as data manipulation
language (DML). DML is used for
maintaining the data including:
• Updating data
• Inserting data
• Deleting portions of the database

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Database Systems

• Querying a database:
– The set of commands used to query the database is known
as data query language (DQL). DQL is
used to interrogate the database, including:
• Retrieving records
• Sorting records
• Ordering records
• Presenting subsets of the database
– The DQL usually contains easy-to-use, powerful
commands that enable users to satisfy their own
information needs.
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Database Systems

• Report Writer
– Many DBMS packages also include a report writer, a
language that simplifies the creation of reports.
– Users typically specify:
• What elements they want printed
• How the report should be formatted
– The report writer then:
• Searches the database
• Extracts specified data
• Prints them out according to specified format

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Database Systems

• Users typically have access to both DQL and

report writer.
• Access to DDL and DML are typically restricted to
employees with administrative and programming
responsibilities.

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Database Systems

• A DBMS is characterized by the type of

logical data model on which it is based.
– A data model is an abstract representation of
the contents of a database.
– Most new DBMSs are called relational
databases because they use the relational
model developed by E.F. Codd in 1970.

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Relational Databases

• The relational data model represents

everything in the database as being stored in
the forms of tables (aka, relations).

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 STUDENTS
Last First Phone
Student ID Name Name No.
333-33-3333 Simpson Alice 333-3333 Relation
111-11-1111 Sanders Ned 444-4444
123-45-6789 Moore Artie 555-5555

COURSES
Course ID Course Section Day Time
1234 ACCT-3603 1 MWF 8:30
1235 ACCT-3603 2 TR 9:30
1236 MGMT-2103 1 MW 8:30

STUDENT x COURSE
SCID Student ID Course
333333333-1234 333-33-3333 1234
333333333-1236 333-33-3333 1236
111111111-1235 111-11-1111 1235
111111111-1236 111-11-1111 1235
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Relational Databases

• This model only describes how the data

appear in the conceptual- and external-
level schemas.
• The data are physically stored according to
the description in the internal-level schema.

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 STUDENTS
Each row is
Last First Phone
called a tuple,
Student ID Name Name No.
which rhymes
333-33-3333 Simpson Alice 333-3333
with “couple.”
111-11-1111 Sanders Ned 444-4444
123-45-6789 Moore Artie 555-5555

COURSES
Course ID Course Section Day Time
1234 ACCT-3603 1 MWF 8:30
1235 ACCT-3603 2 TR 9:30
1236 MGMT-2103 1 MW 8:30
STUDENT x
COURSE
SCID
333333333-1234
333333333-1236
111111111-1235
111111111-1236 BBFE 21342– Management Information Syste 61
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 STUDENTS Each row
Last First Phone
contains data
Student ID Name Name No. about a specific
occurrence of
333-33-3333 Simpson Alice 333-3333
the type of entity
111-11-1111 Sanders Ned 444-4444
in the table.
123-45-6789 Moore Artie 555-5555

COURSES
Course ID Course Section Day Time
1234 ACCT-3603 1 MWF 8:30
1235 ACCT-3603 2 TR 9:30
1236 MGMT-2103 1 MW 8:30
STUDENT x
COURSE
SCID
333333333-1234
333333333-1236
111111111-1235
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 STUDENTS Each column in
Last First Phone a table
Student ID Name Name No. contains
333-33-3333 Simpson Alice 333-3333 information
111-11-1111 Sanders Ned 444-4444 about a specific
123-45-6789 Moore Artie 555-5555 attribute of the
entity.
COURSES
Course ID Course Section Day Time
1234 ACCT-3603 1 MWF 8:30
1235 ACCT-3603 2 TR 9:30
1236 MGMT-2103 1 MW 8:30
STUDENT x
COURSE
SCID
333333333-1234
333333333-1236
111111111-1235
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 STUDENTS
Last First Phone
Student ID Name Name No.
333-33-3333 Simpson Alice 333-3333
111-11-1111 Sanders Ned 444-4444
123-45-6789 Moore Artie 555-5555

COURSES
Course ID Course Section Day Time
1234 ACCT-3603 1 MWF 8:30
1235 ACCT-3603 2 TR 9:30
1236 MGMT-2103 1 MW 8:30
STUDENT x
COURSE A primary key is the
SCID attribute or combination
333333333-1234 of attributes that
333333333-1236 uniquely identifies a
specific row in a table.
111111111-1235
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 STUDENTS
Last First Phone
Student ID Name Name No.
333-33-3333 Simpson Alice 333-3333
111-11-1111 Sanders Ned 444-4444
123-45-6789 Moore Artie 555-5555

COURSES
Course ID Course Section Day Time
1234 ACCT-3603 1 MWF 8:30
1235 ACCT-3603 2 TR 9:30
1236 MGMT-2103 1 MW 8:30
STUDENT x COURSE
SCID
333333333-1234 In some tables, two or more attributes
333333333-1236 may be joined to form the primary key.
111111111-1235
111111111-1236
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 STUDENTS
Advisor
Student ID Last Name First Name Phone No. No.
333-33-3333 Simpson Alice 333-3333 1418
111-11-1111 Sanders Ned 444-4444 1418
123-45-6789 Moore Artie 555-5555 1503

ADVISORS
Advisor No. Last Name First Name Office No.
1418 Howard Glen 420
1419 Melton Amy 316
1503 Zhang Xi 202
1506 Radowski J.D. 203

A foreign key is an attribute in one table that is a primary key in

another table.

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 STUDENTS
Advisor
Student ID Last Name First Name Phone No. No.
333-33-3333 Simpson Alice 333-3333 1418
111-11-1111 Sanders Ned 444-4444 1418
123-45-6789 Moore Artie 555-5555 1503

ADVISORS
Advisor No. Last Name First Name Office No.
1418 Howard Glen 420
1419 Melton Amy 316
1503 Zhang Xi 202
1506 Radowski J.D. 203

Foreign keys are used to link tables together.

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 STUDENTS
Advisor
Student ID Last Name First Name Phone No. No.
333-33-3333 Simpson Alice 333-3333 1418
111-11-1111 Sanders Ned 444-4444 1418
123-45-6789 Moore Artie 555-5555 1503

ADVISORS
Advisor No. Last Name First Name Office No.
1418 Howard Glen 420
1419 Melton Amy 316
1503 Zhang Xi 202
1506 Radowski J.D. 203

Other non-key attributes in each table store important

information about the entity.

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Relational Databases

• Alternatives for Storing Data

– One possible alternate approach would be to
store all data in one uniform table.
– For example, instead of separate tables for
students and classes, we could store all data in
one table and have a separate line for each student
x class combination.

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 Last First Sectio
Student ID Name Name Phone No. Course No. n Day Time
333-33-3333 Simpson Alice 333-3333 ACCT-3603 1 M 9:00 AM
333-33-3333 Simpson Alice 333-3333 FIN-3213 3 Th 11:00 AM
333-33-3333 Simpson Alice 333-3333 MGMT-3021 11 TH 12:00 PM
111-11-1111 Sanders Ned 444-4444 ACCT-3433 2 T 10:00 AM
111-11-1111 Sanders Ned 444-4444 MGMT-3021 5 W 8:00 AM
111-11-1111 Sanders Ned 444-4444 ANSI-1422 7 F 9:00 AM
123-45-6789 Moore Artie 555-5555 ACCT-3433 2 T 10:00 AM
123-45-6789 Moore Artie 555-5555 FIN-3213 3 Th 11:00 AM

• Using the suggested approach, a student taking three classes

would need three rows in the table.
• In the above, simplified example, a number of problems arise.

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 Last First
Student ID Name Name Phone No. Course No. Sect. Day Time
333-33-3333 Simpson Alice 333-3333 ACCT-3603 1 M 9:00 AM
333-33-3333 Simpson Alice 333-3333 FIN-3213 3 Th 11:00 AM
333-33-3333 Simpson Alice 333-3333 MGMT-3021 11 TH 12:00 PM
111-11-1111 Sanders Ned 444-4444 ACCT-3433 2 T 10:00 AM
111-11-1111 Sanders Ned 444-4444 MGMT-3021 5 W 8:00 AM
111-11-1111 Sanders Ned 444-4444 ANSI-1422 7 F 9:00 AM
123-45-6789 Moore Artie 555-5555 ACCT-3433 2 T 10:00 AM
123-45-6789 Moore Artie 555-5555 FIN-3213 3 Th 11:00 AM

• Suppose Alice Simpson changes her phone number. You need

to make the change in three places. If you fail to change it in all
three places or change it incorrectly in one place, then the
records for Alice will be inconsistent.
• This problem is referred to as an update anomaly.

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 Last First
Student ID Name Name Phone No. Course No. Sect. Day Time
333-33-3333 Simpson Alice 333-3333 ACCT-3603 1 M 9:00 AM
333-33-3333 Simpson Alice 333-3333 FIN-3213 3 Th 11:00 AM
333-33-3333 Simpson Alice 333-3333 MGMT-3021 11 TH 12:00 PM
111-11-1111 Sanders Ned 444-4444 ACCT-3433 2 T 10:00 AM
111-11-1111 Sanders Ned 444-4444 MGMT-3021 5 W 8:00 AM
111-11-1111 Sanders Ned 444-4444 ANSI-1422 7 F 9:00 AM
123-45-6789 Moore Artie 555-5555 ACCT-3433 2 T 10:00 AM
123-45-6789 Moore Artie 555-5555 FIN-3213 3 Th 11:00 AM

• What happens if you have a new student to add, but he hasn’t

signed up for any courses yet?
• Or what if there is a new class to add, but there are no students
enrolled in it yet? In either case, the record will be partially
blank.
• This problem is referred to as an insert anomaly.
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 Last First
Student ID Name Name Phone No. Course No. Sect. Day Time
333-33-3333 Simpson Alice 333-3333 ACCT-3603 1 M 9:00 AM
333-33-3333 Simpson Alice 333-3333 FIN-3213 3 Th 11:00 AM
333-33-3333 Simpson Alice 333-3333 MGMT-3021 11 TH 12:00 PM
111-11-1111 Sanders Ned 444-4444 ACCT-3433 2 T 10:00 AM
111-11-1111 Sanders Ned 444-4444 MGMT-3021 5 W 8:00 AM
111-11-1111 Sanders Ned 444-4444 ANSI-1422 7 F 9:00 AM
123-45-6789 Moore Artie 555-5555 ACCT-3433 2 T 10:00 AM
123-45-6789 Moore Artie 555-5555 FIN-3213 3 Th 11:00 AM

• If Ned withdraws from all his classes and you eliminate all three of
his rows from the table, then you will no longer have a record of
Ned. If Ned is planning to take classes next semester, then
you probably didn’t really want to delete all records of him.
• This problem is referred to as a delete anomaly.

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Relational Databases

• Alternatives for Storing Data

– Another possible approach would be to store
each student in one row of the table and create
multiple columns to accommodate each class
that he is taking.

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 Last First Phone
Student ID0 Name Name No. Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4

333-33-3333 Simpson Alice 333-3333 ACCT-3603 FIN-3213 MGMT-3021

111-11-1111 Sanders Ned 444-4444 ACCT-3433 MGMT-3021 ANSI-1422

123-45-6789 Moore Artie 555-5555 ACCT-3433 FIN-3213

• This approach is also fraught with problems:

– How many classes should you allow for in building the table?
– The above table is quite simplified. In reality, you might
need to allow for 20 or more classes (assuming a student
could take many 1-hour classes). Also, more information
than just the course number would be stored for each class.
There would be a great deal of wasted space for all the
students taking fewer than the maximum possible number of
classes.
– Also, if you wanted a list of every student taking MGMT-3021,
notice that you would have to search multiple attributes.
BBFE 21342– Management Information Syste 75
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 STUDENTS
Last First Phone
Student ID Name Name No.
333-33-3333 Simpson Alice 333-3333
111-11-1111 Sanders Ned 444-4444
123-45-6789 Moore Artie 555-5555

COURSES
Course ID Course Section Day Time
1234 ACCT-3603 1 MWF 8:30
1235 ACCT-3603 2 TR 9:30
1236 MGMT-2103 1 MW 8:30
STUDENT x • The solution to the preceding problems
COURSE
is to use a set of tables in a relational
SCID
database.
333333333-1234
• Each entity is stored in a separate table,
333333333-1236
and separate tables or foreign keys can
111111111-1235 be used to link the entities together.
111111111-1236 BBFE 21342– Management Information Syste 76
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Relational Databases

• Basic Requirements of a Relational Database

– Every column in a row must be single valued.
• In other words, every cell can have one and only one value.
• In the student table, you couldn’t have an attribute named “Phone
Number” if a student could have multiple phone numbers.
• There might be an attribute named “local phone number” and
an attribute named “permanent phone number.”
• You could not have an attribute named “Class” in the student
table, because a student could take multiple classes.

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Relational Databases

• Basic Requirements of a Relational

Database
– The primary key cannot be null.
• The primary key uniquely identifies a specific row in
the table, so it cannot be null, and it must be unique
for every record.
• This rule is referred to as the entity integrity rule.

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 STUDENTS
Last First Phone
Student ID Name Name No.
333-33-3333 Simpson Alice 333-3333
111-11-1111 Sanders Ned 444-4444
123-45-6789 Moore Artie 555-5555

COURSES
Course ID Course Section Day Time
1234 ACCT-3603 1 MWF 8:30
1235 ACCT-3603 2 TR 9:30
1236 MGMT-2103 1 MW 8:30
STUDENT x
COURSE
• Note that within each table, there are no
SCID
duplicate primary keys and no null
333333333-1234 primary keys.
333333333-1236
• Consistent with the entity integrity rule.
111111111-1235
111111111-1236 BBFE 21342– Management Information Syste 79
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Relational Databases

• Basic Requirements of a Relational

Database
– A foreign key must either be null or
correspond to the value of a primary key in
another table.
• This rule is referred to as the referential integrity
rule.
• The rule is necessary because foreign keys are used
to link rows in one table to rows in another table.

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 STUDENTS
Advisor
Student ID Last Name First Name Phone No. No.
333-33-3333 Simpson Alice 333-3333 1418
111-11-1111 Sanders Ned 444-4444 1418
123-45-6789 Moore Artie 555-5555 1503

ADVISORS
Advisor No. Last Name First Name Office No.
1418 Howard Glen 420
1419 Melton Amy 316
1503 Zhang Xi 202
1506 Radowski J.D. 203

Advisor No. is a foreign key in the STUDENTS table. Every

incident of Advisor No. in the STUDENTS table either matches
an instance of the primary key in the ADVISORS table or is null.

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Relational Databases

• Basic Requirements of a Relational

Database
– All non-key attributes in a table should
describe a characteristic of the object
identified by the primary key.
• Could nationality be a non-key attribute in the
student table?
• Could advisor’s nationality be a non-key attribute
in the student table?

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Relational Databases

• The preceding four constraints produce a well-

structured (normalized) database in which:
– Data are consistent.
– Redundancy is minimized and controlled.
• In a normalized database, attributes appear multiple
times only when they function as foreign keys.
• The referential integrity rule ensures there will be no
update anomaly problem with foreign keys.

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Relational Databases

• An important feature is that data about various things of

interest (entities) are stored in separate tables.
– Makes it easier to add new data to the system.
• You add a new student by adding a row to the student
table.
• You add a new course by adding a row to the course
table.
• Means you can add a student even if he hasn’t signed up
for any courses.
• And you can add a class even if no students are yet
enrolled in it.
– Makes it easy to avoid the insert anomaly.
Space is also used more efficiently than in the other
schemes. There should be no blank rows or attributes.
BBFE 21342– Management Information Syste 84
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 • Add a
STUDENTS
student
Last First Phone
Student ID Name Name No.
here.
333-33-3333 Simpson Alice 333-3333 • Leaves no
111-11-1111 Sanders Ned 444-4444 blank
123-45-6789 Moore Artie 555-5555 spaces.

COURSES
Course ID Course Section Day Time
1234 ACCT-3603 1 MWF 8:30
1235 ACCT-3603 2 TR 9:30
1236 MGMT-2103 1 MW 8:30
STUDENT x
COURSE • Add a course here.
SCID • Leaves no blank spaces.
333333333-1234
333333333-1236 • When a particular student enrolls for a
111111111-1235 particular course, add that info here.
111111111-1236 BBFE 21342– Management Information Syste 85
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Relational Databases

• Deletion of a class for a student would cause

the elimination of one record in the student x
class table.
– The student still exists in the student table.
– The class still exists in the class table.
– Avoids the delete anomaly.

BBFE 21342– Management Information Syste 86

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 STUDENTS
Last First Phone • Ned still
Student ID Name Name No. exists
333-33-3333 Simpson Alice 333-3333 in the
111-11-1111 Sanders Ned 444-4444 student
123-45-6789 Moore Artie 555-5555 table.

COURSES
Course ID Course Section Day Time
1234 ACCT-3603 1 MWF 8:30
1235 ACCT-3603 2 TR 9:30
1236 MGMT-2103 1 MW 8:30
STUDENT x
COURSE • Even if Ned was the only student in
SCID the class, ACCT-3603 still exists in
333333333-1234 the course table.
333333333-1236
• If Ned Sanders drops ACCT-3603,
111111111-1235
remove Ned’s class from this table.
111111111-1236 BBFE 21342– Management Information Syste 87
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Creating a Database Environment

Designing Databases:

• Conceptual design: Abstract model of database

from a business perspective

• Physical design: Detailed description of business

information needs

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 Creating a Database Environment

Designing Databases: (Continued)

• Entity-relationship diagram: Methodology for

documenting databases illustrating relationships
between database entities

• Normalization: Process of creating small stable

data structures from complex groups of data

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Entity Relationship
Modelling

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E-R Data Modelling

An entity is an object that exists and

Example: specific person, company,
is distinguishable from other event, plant
objects.

Example: people have names and

Entities have attributes addresses

An entity set is a set of entities of

Example: set of all persons, companies,
the same type that share the same trees, holidays
properties.

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 Attributes

• An entity is represented by a set of attributes, that is

descriptive properties
• possessed by all members of an entity set.
• Example:
• instructor = (ID, name, street, city, salary )
• course= (course_id, title, credits)
• Domain – the set of permitted values for each attribute
• Attribute types:
• Simple and composite attributes.
• Single-valued and multivalued attributes
• Derived attributes

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 Types of Attributes

Simple Attribute: Attribute that consist of a single atomic value.

Example: Salary

Composite Attribute : Attribute value not atomic.

Example : Address : ‘House _no:City:State
Name : ‘First Name: Middle Name: Last Name’

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 Types of Attributes

Single Valued Attribute: Attribute that hold a single value

Exampe1: City
Example2:Customer id

Multi Valued Attribute: Attribute that

hold multiple values.

Example1: A customer can have multiple phone numbers, email id's

etc Example2: A person may have several college degrees

Derived Attribute: An attribute that’s value is derived from a stored

attribute.

Example : age, and its value is derived from the stored attribute Date
of Birth. BBFE 21342– Management Information Syste 94
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Entity Sets INSTRUCTOR and STUDENT

instructor_ID instructor_name student-ID student_name

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 Relationship Sets

 A relationship is an association among several

entities
Example:
advisor 22222 (Einstein)
44553 (Peltier) instructor entity
student entity relationship set

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 Entity-Relationship Diagrams

 Representing entities
we represent an entity by a named rectangle
use a singular noun, or adjective + noun
refer to one instance in naming

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 Entity-Relationship Diagrams

 Representing relationship

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 Entity-Relationship Diagrams

 Types of Relationships
 Three types of relationships can exist between entities

 One-to-one relationship (1:1): One instance in an entity (parent)

refers to one and only one instance in the related entity (child).

 One-to-many relationship (1:M): One instance in an entity

(parent) refers to one or more instances in the related entity
(child)

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Entity-Relationship Diagrams

One to one One to many

BBFE 21342– Management Information Syste 100

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 Entity-Relationship Diagrams

 Types of Relationships
 Many-to-many relationship (M:N): exists when one instance of the first entity
(parent) can relate to many instances of the second entity (child), and one
instance of the second entity can relate to many instances of the first entity.

Many to many
BBFE 21342– Management Information Syste 101
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 Cardinality Constraints

 We express cardinality constraints by drawing either a directed line (),

signifying “one,” or an undirected line (—), signifying “many,” between
the relationship set and the entity set.
 Or, by numbering each entity. * or, m for many.

 One-to-one relationship:
 A student is associated with at most one instructor via the
relationship advisor
 A student is associated with at most one department via
stud_dept

1 1

BBFE 21342– Management Information Syste 102

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 Many-to-Many Relationship

 An instructor is associated with several (possibly 0) students via

advisor
 A student is associated with several (possibly 0) instructors via
advisor

1 1

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 E-R Diagrams

 Crow’s foot notation: A type of cardinality notation. It is

called crow's foot notation because of the shapes, which
include circles, bars, and symbols, that indicate various
possibilities.

A single bar indicates one, a double bar indicates one

and only one, a circle indicates zero, and a crow's foot
indicates many.
1 1

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 E-R Diagrams

1 1

Crow's foot notation is a common method of indicating cardinality. The four

examples show how you can use various symbols to describe the relationships
between entities.
BBFE 21342– Management Information Syste 105
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Different Types of Keys

 A candidate key of an entity set is a minimal super key

 ID is candidate key of instructor
 course_id is candidate key of course

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 Primary Key

 A primary key is a candidate key that is most appropriate to be the main

reference key for the table. As its name suggests, it is the primary key of
reference for the table and is used throughout the database to help establish
relationships with other tables.
 The primary key must contain unique values, must never be null and
uniquely identify each record in the table

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 Foreign Key

 A foreign key is generally a primary key from one table that appears as a field in
another where the first table has a relationship to the second. In other words, if
we had a table A with a primary key X that linked to a table B where X was a field
in B, then X would be a foreign key in B

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 Different Types of Keys

A super key of an entity set is a set of one or more attributes whose

values uniquely determine each entity.
Example:

 {Student ID,FirstName }
 {Student ID, LastName }

 {Student ID,FirstName,LastName}

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 E-R Diagrams

 Rectangles represent entity sets.

 Diamonds represent relationship sets.
 Attributes listed inside entity rectangle. Or , as oval shape along
with the
rectangle.
 Underline indicates primary key attributes

BBFE 21342– Management Information Syste 110

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Summary of Symbols Used in E-R Notation

BBFE 21342– Management Information Syste 111

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 Total Participation of Entity Set

 E.g., A Class entity cannot exist unless related to a Faculty member

entity

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 Weak Entity Sets

An entity set that does not have a primary key is referred to as a weak entity set

 We underline the discriminator of a weak entity set with a

dashed line.
 We put the identifying relationship of a weak entity in a double
diamond.
 Primary key for section – (course_id, sec_id, semester, year)

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Summary of Symbols Used in E-R Notation

Crows feet notation

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 Summary of Symbols Used in E-R Notation

 Representing attributes

 Rectangle -- Entity

 Ellipses -- Attribute (underlined attributes are [part of] the primary key)

 Double ellipses -- multi-valued attribute

 Dashed ellipses-- derived attribute, e.g. age is derivable from birthdate and
current date. BBFE 21342– Management Information Syste 115
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 Summary of Symbols Used in E-R Notation

 Representing attributes

BBFE 21342– Management Information Syste 116

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E-R Diagram for a University

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