Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing

Components of Computer

Data Representation

and

AI
Dr. Zahid Halim

Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology, Topi

Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing

Parts of a Computer
• There are two main parts of computers, hardware and software
– Hardware is all of the parts of the computer you can see ( ? ) and touch.
E.g.,
• Monitor, Keyboard, Processor, Memory, Circuits, Cables
etc
– Software refers to parts of the computer which do not have a material
form. E.g.,
• Data, Programs, Protocols etc

Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology, Topi

Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing
Computer :
An External Look
• Casing [with components inside]
– Next slide
• Monitor
– Lets the user see how the computer is
responding to their command
• Keyboard
– For entering text commands
• Mouse
– Point-and-Click interface for
interacting with graphical
environment

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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing
Computer:
Internal Components (-1-)
• Inside the casing, we have a built-in power supply along with:
– Motherboard
• It is the central printed circuit board (PCB) where the
core components of your computer reside
– provides slots to host microprocessor, memory, driver controllers,
graphics card, modem, network card etc
– also provides electrical connections by which these hosted components
communicate

– Hard Disk Drive

• Permanent storage for data and programs. Also,
normally, your operating system is installed here.
– CD-ROM / DVD Player

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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing
Computer:
Internal Components (-2-)

Power Supply

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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing
Computer:
Motherboard:
Internal Components (-3-)
Connectors &
Ports
HDMI (High-Definition
Multimedia Interface) is a
compact audio/video interface
for transferring uncompressed
video data and
compressed/uncompressed
digital audio data from a HDMI-
compliant device to a
compatible computer monitor,
video projector etc.

RJ=Registered Jack

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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing
Computer:
Internal Components (-3-)
PCI Slot AGP Slot
[sound, network, [Graphics
modem] ]

IDE / ATA Connector

[hard disk, CD-ROM]

DRAM
Power Memory Slot for
Connector Slot Microprocesso
r
Motherboard: Sockets & Slots
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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing
Computer:
Internal Components (-4-)

Microprocessor

Graphics Card

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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing
Computer:
Internal Components (-5-)

RAM Network Card

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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing
Computer:
Internal Components (-6-)

Hard Disk Drive DVD RW

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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing
Computer:
Peripherals
• A peripheral device is an equipment that might be
added to a computer system to enhance its
functionality
– Printer
– Digital camera
– Scanner
– Projector
– Joystick
– Graphics tablet

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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing

Data Representation

Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology, Topi

Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing

Data Representation
• Modern computers are digital devices
– A digital device works with discrete data, such as the digits
1 and 0
– An analog device works with continuous data

• Just as a standard light switch is a simpler technology

than a dimmer, so is digital when compared to analog
digital analog

Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology, Topi

Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing

Number System

• We use decimal number system [base 10] when representing

numeric values in our daily life
– E.g., consider the number 123
• 123 = 100 + 20 + 3 = 1*102 + 2 * 101 + 3*100
• Most modern computer systems do not use the decimal
system to represent numeric values.
– Instead, they use a binary numbering system [base 2]
• Consisting of only two digits: 1 and 0
• Uses powers of 2 rather than 10

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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing

Conversions

• Conversion from binary to decimal:

– (1011)2 = 1*23 + 0*22 + 1*21 + 1*20 = (11)10
• Conversion from decimal to binary:
2 125
2 62 – 1 2 16
2 31 – 0 2 8 – 0
2 15 – 1 (125)10 2 4 – 0
(16)10
2 7 – 1 = (1111101)2 2 2 – 0 = (10000)2
2 3 – 1 2 1 – 0
2 1 – 1

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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing
Representing
Non-Numeric Data
• Some decimal values & their binary equivalents 
• In addition to numeric data, computers also
manipulate character data
• numbers, symbols, numerals that are not used
in arithmetic operations
– To represent them, codes have been developed
that specify binary equivalent for each character
• ASCII – 7 bits [Example table given ]
• Unicode – 16 bits Char Decimal Binary
A 65 100 0001
• Sounds and pictures must be transformed
B 66 100 0010
into a format the computer can understand
– A computer must digitize colors, notes, and 0 48 011 0000
instrument sounds into 1s and 0s 1 49 011 0001
$ 36 010 0100
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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing

Quantifying Bits and Bytes

• A bit is one binary digit (b):
– can have value either 0 or 1
• A byte is 8 bits (B)
– 0010 0100
• Kilo- means a 1000; Mega- means million; Giga -means billion
– Kilobit (Kb) is 1,024 bits
– Kilobyte (KB) is 1,024 bytes
– Megabyte (MB) is 1,048,576 bytes
– Gigabyte (GB) is 1,073,741,824 bytes
• Bits take the form of electrical pulses that can travel over
circuits
– Almost the same way as electricity flows over a wire when you turn on
a light switch
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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing

What is Intelligence?

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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing

What is Artificial Intelligence?

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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing

Hardware

1011 neurons
1014 synapses
cycle time: 10-3 sec

107 transistors
1010 bits of RAM
cycle time: 10-9 sec

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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing
Computer vs. Brain

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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing

•Conclusion
– In near future we can have computers with as many processing
elements as our brain, but:
far fewer interconnections (wires or synapses)
much faster updates.

•Fundamentally different hardware may

•require fundamentally different algorithms!
– Very much an open question.
– Neural net research.

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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing

What Level of Abstraction?

• Hardware (build brains)
• “network” (neural networks?)
• Algorithm + representation
• Intermediate Behavior (cognitive modeling)
• Task Performance (Deep Blue, Turing Test)
• Task Competence (Idealized view)

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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing

Classical AI
• The principles of intelligence are separate from any hardware / software /
wetware implementation

• Look for these principles by studying how to perform tasks that require
intelligence

• Can we rely on simple tasks? (e.g., 8-puzzle, tic tac toe)

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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing

Success Story: Medical Expert Systems

• Mycin (1980)
– Expert level performance in diagnosis of blood infections
• Today: 1,000’s of systems
– Everything from diagnosing cancer to designing dentures
– Often outperform doctors in clinical trials
– Major hurdle today – non-expert part – doctor/machine interaction

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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing
Success Story:
Chess

I could feel – I could

smell – a new kind of
intelligence across
the table
- Kasparov

•Examines 5 billion positions / second

•Intelligent behavior emerges from brute-
force search

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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing

Autonomous Systems

• In the 1990’s there was a growing concern that work in classical

AI ignored crucial scientific questions:
– How do we integrate the components of intelligence (e.g.
learning & planning)?
– How does perception interact with reasoning?
– How does the demand for real-time performance in a
complex, changing environment affect the architecture of
intelligence?

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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing

Provide a standard problem where a

wide range of technologies can be
integrated and examined
By 2050, develop a team of fully
autonomous humanoid robots
that can win against the human
world champion team in soccer.

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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing

Software Robots (softbots)

• Softbots: ‘intelligent’ program that uses software tools on a
person’s behalf.

• Sensors = LS, Google, etc.

• Effectors = RM, ftp, Amazon.com

• Software: not physical but not simulated.

• Active: not a help system (softbot safety!)

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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing

Key Hard Problem for AI

• Today’s successful AI systems

– operate in well-defined domains
– employ narrow, specialize knowledge

• Commonsense Knowledge
– needed to operate in messy, complex, open-ended
worlds
• Your kitchen vs. GM factory floor
– understand unconstrained Natural Language

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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing
Role of Knowledge in Natural Language
Understanding

• Speech Recognition
– “word spotting” feasible today
– continuous speech – rapid progress
– turns out that “low level” signal not as ambiguous as we once
thought
• Translation / Understanding
– very limited progress
The spirit is willing but the flesh is weak. (English)
The vodka is good but the meat is rotten. (Russian)

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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing

Syntactic, Semantic, Analogical Knowledge

• Time flies like an arrow.

• Fruit flies like a banana.

• Fruit flies like a rock.

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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing

How to Get Commonsense?

• CYC Project (Doug Lenat, Cycorp)
– Encoding 1,000,000 commonsense facts about the world by hand
– Coverage still too spotty for use!

• Alternatives?
• Open Mind
• KnowItAll

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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing

Historical Perspective

• (4th C BC+) Aristotle, George Boole, Gottlob

Frege, Alfred Tarski
– formalizing the laws of human thought
• (16th C+) Gerolamo Cardano, Pierre Femat,
James Bernoulli, Thomas Bayes
– formalizing probabilistic reasoning
• (1950+) Alan Turing, John von Neumann,
Claude Shannon
– thinking as computation
• (1956) John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky, Herbert
Simon, Allen Newell
– start of the field of AI

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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing

Recurrent Themes
• Neural nets vs AI
– McCulloch & Pitts 1943
– Died out in 1960’s, revived in 1980’s
• Neural nets vastly simplified model of real neurons, but still
useful & practical – massive parallelism
• particular family of learning and representation techniques
• Logic vs Probability
– In 1950’s logic seemed more computationally &
expressively attractive (McCarthy, Newell)
• attempts to extend logic “just a little” to deal with the fact that the
world is uncertain!
– 1988 – Judea Pearl’s work on Bayes nets
• provided efficient computational framework
– Today – no longer rivals
• hot topic: combining probability & first-order logic

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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing

Recurrent Themes, cont.

• Weak vs Strong Methods
– Weak – general search methods
• A* search, constraint propagation, ...
– Rise of “knowledge intensive” approach
• expert systems
• more knowledge, less computation
– Today: resurgence of weak methods
• desktop supercomputers
• in highly competitive domains (Chess) exceptions to the general rules are most
important!
– How to combine weak and strong methods seamlessly?

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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing

(Re-)Current Themes
• Combinatorial Explosion
• Micro-world successes don’t scale up.
• How to Organize and accumulate large amounts of knowledge?
• How to translate from informal, ill-structured statements to
formal reasoning (e.g., understand a story)?
• What are reasonable simplifying assumptions?

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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing

The Turing Test

• 1950 – Alan Turing

devised a test for
intelligence called the
Imitation Game
– Ask questions of two
entities, receive answers Questions
from both Answers Answers
– If you can’t tell which of
the entities is human and
which is a computer
program, then you are
fooled and we should
therefore consider the Which is the person?
computer to be intelligent Which
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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing

Why “Learn” ?
• Machine learning is programming computers to optimize a
performance criterion using example data or past experience.
• There is no need to “learn” to calculate payroll
• Learning is used when:
– Human expertise does not exist (navigating on Mars),
– Humans are unable to explain their expertise (speech recognition)
– Solution changes in time (routing on a computer network)
– Solution needs to be adapted to particular cases (user biometrics)

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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing
What We Talk About When We Talk
About“Learning”
• Learning general models from a data of particular examples
• Data is cheap and abundant (data warehouses, data marts);
knowledge is expensive and scarce.
• Example in retail: Customer transactions to consumer behavior:
People who bought “Da Vinci Code” also bought “The Five People You
Meet in Heaven” (www.amazon.com)
• Build a model that is a good and useful approximation to the
data.

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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing

Data Mining
• Retail: Market basket analysis, Customer relationship
management (CRM)
• Finance: Credit scoring, fraud detection
• Manufacturing: Optimization, troubleshooting
• Medicine: Medical diagnosis
• Telecommunications: Quality of service optimization
• Bioinformatics: Motifs, alignment
• Web mining: Search engines
• ...

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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing

Classification

• Example: Credit
scoring
• Differentiating
between low-risk
and high-risk
customers from their
income and savings

Discriminant: IF income > θ1 AND savings > θ2

THEN low-risk ELSE high-risk

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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing

Classification: Applications
• Aka Pattern recognition
• Face recognition: Pose, lighting, occlusion (glasses, beard),
make-up, hair style
• Character recognition: Different handwriting styles.
• Speech recognition: Temporal dependency.
– Use of a dictionary or the syntax of the language.
– Sensor fusion: Combine multiple modalities; eg, visual (lip image) and
acoustic for speech
• Medical diagnosis: From symptoms to illnesses
• ...

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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing

Face Recognition

Training examples of a person

Test images

AT&T Laboratories, Cambridge UK

http://www.uk.research.att.com/facedatabase.html

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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing

Regression

• Example: Price of a used

car
• x : car attributes y = wx+w0
y : price
y = g (x | θ)
g ( ) model,
θ parameters

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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing

Regression Applications

• Navigating a car: Angle of the steering wheel (CMU

NavLab)
• Kinematics of a robot arm
(x,y) α1= g1(x,y)
α2= g2(x,y)
α2

α1

 Response surface design

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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing

Supervised Learning: Uses

• Prediction of future cases: Use the rule to predict the output for
future inputs
• Knowledge extraction: The rule is easy to understand
• Compression: The rule is simpler than the data it explains
• Outlier detection: Exceptions that are not covered by the rule,
e.g., fraud

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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing

Unsupervised Learning
• Learning “what normally happens”
• No output
• Clustering: Grouping similar instances
• Example applications
– Customer segmentation in CRM
– Image compression: Color quantization
– Bioinformatics: Learning motifs

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Lecture 02: Components of Computer CS 101: Introduction to Computing

Reinforcement Learning
• Learning a policy: A sequence of outputs
• No supervised output but delayed reward
• Credit assignment problem
• Game playing
• Robot in a maze
• Multiple agents, partial observability, ...

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