Unit 6

Biodiversity and
conservation
Dr. Sharfaa Hussain
 “Biodiversity is the variation among living
organisms from different sources including
terrestrial, marine and desert ecosystems, and
the ecological complexes of which they are a
part.”

Biodiversity describes the richness and variety

Definition of of life on earth. It is the most complex and
important feature of our planet. Without
Biodiversity biodiversity, life would not sustain.

The term biodiversity was coined in 1985. It is

important in natural as well as artificial
ecosystems. It deals with nature’s variety, the
biosphere. It refers to variabilities among plants,
animals and microorganism species.
 Levels of
Biodiversity

Biodiversity is usually
explored at three levels -
genetic diversity, species
diversity and ecosystem
diversity. These three
levels work together to
create the complexity of
life on Earth.
• Genetic Biodiversity
• Species Biodiversity
• Ecological Biodiversity
 Genetic diversity
• Genes are the basic units of all life on Earth.
They are responsible for both the similarities
and the differences between organisms
• Genetic diversity is the variety of genes within a
species. Each species is made up of individuals
that have their own particular genetic
composition. This means a species may have
different populations, each having different
genetic compositions. To conserve genetic
diversity, different populations of a species
must be conserved.
• Not all groups of animals have the same degree
of genetic diversity. Kangaroos, for example,
come from recent evolutionary lines and are
genetically very similar. Carnivorous marsupials,
called dasyurids, come from more ancient lines
and are genetically far more diverse.
 Importance of Genetic Diversity

• Genetic diversity gives rise to different physical attributes to the

individual and capacity to adapt to stress, diseases and
unfavourable environmental conditions.
• Environmental changes that are natural or due to human
intervention, lead to the natural selection and survival of the
fittest. Hence, due to genetic diversity, the varieties that are
susceptible, die and the ones who can adapt to changes will
survive.
• Genetic diversity is important for a healthy population, by
maintaining different varieties of genes that might be resistant
to pests, diseases or other conditions.
• New varieties of plants can be grown by cross-breeding
different genetic variants and produce plants with desirable
traits like disease resistance, increased tolerance to stress.
• Genetic diversity reduces the recurrence of undesirable
inherited traits.
• Genetic diversity ensures that at least there are some survivors
of a species left.
 Species diversity
“Species diversity is defined as the number of different
species present in an ecosystem and relative
abundance of each of those species.”

Species diversity is the variety of species within a habitat or

a region. Some habitats, such as rainforests and coral
reefs, have many species. Others, such as salt flats or a
polluted stream, have fewer.

There are two constituents of species diversity:

• Species richness: Number of different species present
in an ecosystem. Tropical areas have greater species
richness as the environment is conducive for a large
number of species
• Species evenness: Relative abundance of individuals of
each of those species. If the number of individuals
within a species is fairly constant across communities, it
is said to have a high evenness and if the number of
individuals varies from species to species, it is said to
have low evenness. High evenness leads to greater
specific diversity
 Importance of Species Diversity

• In a healthy ecosystem, diverse and balanced number

of species exist to maintain the balance of an
ecosystem. In an ecosystem, all the species depend on
each other directly or indirectly. So to make a more
efficient, productive and sustainable ecosystem, it is
important to maintain high species diversity.
• More diverse ecosystem tend to be more productive.
E.g. the ecosystem with a great variety of producer
species will produce large biomass to support a
greater variety of consumer species
• Greater species richness and productivity makes an
ecosystem more sustainable and stable
• More diverse the ecosystem, greater is the ability to
withstand environmental stresses like drought or
invasive infestations
• Diversity in large numbers help in large scale
interaction among organisms such as in the food web
• Pollinators, symbiotic relationships, decomposers,
each species perform a unique role, which is
irreplaceable
 Ecosystem diversity

• Ecosystem diversity is the variety

of ecosystems in a given place.
An ecosystem is a community of
organisms and their physical
environment interacting together.
An ecosystem can cover a large
area, such as a whole forest, or a
small area, such as a pond.
• An ecosystem may be as large as
the Great Barrier Reef or as small
as the back of a spider crab's
shell, which provides a home for
plants and other animals.
 India as a mega
biodiversity region

• Just 17 of the world’s 195

countries contain 70 percent of its
biodiversity, earning them the
title “megadiverse.”
• India is one of these megadiverse
countries with 2.4% of the land
area, accounting for 7-8% of the
world's species, including about
91,000 species of animals and
45,500 species of plants,
documented in its ten bio-
geographic regions.
• Of these 12.6% of mammals,
4.5% of birds, 45.8% of reptiles,
55.8% of amphibians and 33% of
Indian plants are endemic, being
found nowhere else in the world.
Mega Diversity/Biodiversity Hotspots in India
To qualify as a biodiversity hotspot, an area must
meet two strict criteria:

• Contain at least 1,500 species of vascular plants

found nowhere else on Earth (known as "endemic"
species).
• Have lost at least 70 percent of its primary native
vegetation.

There are major four biodiversity hotspots in India:

• The Himalayas
• Indo-Burma Region
• The Western Ghats
• Sundaland
 • Considered the highest in the world, the Himalayas (overall)
comprises North-East India, Bhutan, Central and Eastern parts of
Nepal.
• This region (NE Himalayas) holds a record of having 163
endangered species which includes the Wild Asian Water
The Himalayas Buffalo, One-horned Rhino; and as many as 10,000 plant
species, of which 3160 are endemic.
• This mountain range covers nearly 750,000 km2. The abrupt rise
of the Himalayan Mountains from less than 500 m to more than
8,000 m results in a diversity of ecosystems that range, in only a
couple of hundred kilometers, from alluvial grasslands (among
the tallest in the world) and subtropical broadleaf forests along
the foothills to temperate broadleaf forests in the mid hills,
mixed conifer and conifer forests in the higher hills, and alpine
meadows above the tree line.
 • The Indo-Burma Region is stretched over a distance of 2,373,000
km².
• In the last 12 years, 6 large mammal species have been
discovered in this region: the Large-antlered Muntjac, the
Annamite Muntjac, the Grey-shanked Douc, the Annamite Striped
Rabbit, the Leaf Deer, and the Saola.
Indo – Burma Region • This hotspot is also known for the endemic freshwater turtle
species, most of which are threatened with extinction, due to
over-harvesting and extensive habitat loss.
• There are also 1,300 different bird species, including the
threatened White-eared Night-heron, and the Orange-necked
Partridge.
 • The Western Ghats are present along the western edge of
peninsular India and covers most of the deciduous forests
and rain forests.
The Western • As per UNESCO, it is home to at least 325 globally
threatened flora, fauna, bird, amphibian, reptile and fish
Ghats •
species.
Originally, the vegetation in this region was spread over
190,000 km2 but has been now reduced to 43,000 km2.
• The region is also known for the globally threatened flora
and fauna represented by 229 plant species, 31 mammal
species, 15 bird species, 43 amphibian species, 5 reptile
species and 1 fish species.
• UNESCO mentions, “Of the total 325 globally threatened
species in the Western Ghats, 129 are classified as
Vulnerable, 145 as Endangered and 51 as Critically
Endangered.”
 • This region lies in South-East Asia and includes
Thailand, Singapore, Indonesia, Brunei, and Malaysia.
• Nicobar region represents India in this hotspot.
• UNESCO declared this region as the world biosphere
Sundaland •
reserve in 2013
This region is famous for its rich terrestrial and marine
ecosystem. Sundaland is one of the biologically richest
hotspots in the world which comprises 25,000 species
of vascular plants, of which 15,000 are found only in
this region.
Biogeographic
zones in India
 India’s recognised biological variety makes up 7-8% of the known
global biological diversity despite occupying only 2.4% of the total
land area. India has been split into 10 biogeographic zones based
on its terrain.
10 Indian
Biogeographical 1. Trans-Himalayan Region
It makes up 5.6% of the overall geographical area and consists of
Zones the high-altitude, cold, and arid mountain regions of Ladakh,
Jammu & Kashmir, North Sikkim, Himachal Pradesh’s Lahaul, and
Spiti areas. The largest numbers of wild sheep and goats in the
world, as well as other unconventional animals like the Snow
Leopard and the migratory Black Necked Crane (Grus nigricollis),
may all be found in this area.

2. Himalayan Zone
It makes up 6.4% of the entire geographical region and has some
of the highest peaks on Earth. India is one of the regions with the
greatest diversity of habitats and species due to the Himalayan
region. For endangered species, a variety of habitats are available
in the alpine and subalpine forests, grassy meadows, and moist
deciduous forests.
3. Indian Desert Zone
Large expansions of grassland in the Indian Desert
Zone, which makes up 6.6% of the world’s landmass
and is home to the Thar and Kutch deserts, provide
habitat for several endangered mammal species.
These include the wolf (Canis lupus), caracal (Felis
caracal), desert cat (Felis libyca), and birds of
conservation.

4. Semi-Arid Region
The semi-arid region, which makes up 16.6% of the
overall geographic area, is in between the desert and
the Western Ghats’ lush forests. There are two sizable
semi-arid zones in Peninsular India. Several man-made
and natural lakes, as well as marshy areas, may be
found in this semi-arid area. The maximum wildlife
biomass is found in this zone’s dominating grass and
shrub layer. Sambar (Cervus unicolour) and Chital (Axis
axis) are two species that are only found in better-
forested hills and moist valley regions, respectively.
5. Western Ghats
These make up 4% of the entire geographical
area. It is one of India’s main areas of tropical
evergreen forests and one of the two “hotspots”
for biodiversity. Along with a distinctive fauna
component of its own, the Western Ghats are
home to healthy populations of the majority of
the vertebrate species present in peninsular
India.

6. Deccan Plateau
India’s largest biogeographic region, accounting
for 42% of the country’s total land area, is the
Deccan Plateau. It is a semi-arid terrain that is
situated in the Western Ghats’ rain shadow. The
best forests in India are found in this bio-
geographic region of peninsular India, which is
by far the largest region. This plateau includes
the states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and
Odisha. The majority of the woodlands are
deciduous.
7. Gangetic Plain
About 10.8% of the geographical land is made up of
the Gangetic plain. The Gangetic plain stretches for
hundreds of kilometres and is topographically
uniform. Rhinos (Rhinoceros unicornis), Elephants
(Elephas maximus), Buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis),
Swamp Deer (Cervus duvauceli), Hog-Deer (Axis
porcinus), and Hispid Hares (Carprolagus bispidus)
are some of the region’s distinctive animals.

8. North East Region

The North East Region makes up 5.2% of the entire
geographical region. This area serves as a merging
place for peninsular India and the Himalayan
Mountains as well as the transition between the
Indian, Indo-Malayan, and Indo-Chinese bio-
geographical zones. Thus, the North-East serves as
both a biodiversity hotspot and the biogeographical
“gateway” for India’s flora and fauna.
9. Coastal Region
The coastal region constitutes 2.5% of the country’s
total land area. Meanwhile, its sandy beaches,
mangroves, mud flats, coral reefs, and marine
angiosperm pastures make it one of India’s wealthiest
and healthiest regions. There are 5,423 kilometres of
coastline between Gujarat and the Sunderbans. The
Lakshadweep is made up of 25 islets that feature a
typical reef lagoon system with a wealth of species.

10. Andaman and Nicobar Islands

One of India’s three tropical moist evergreen forest
zones comprises 0.3% of the country’s total land area.
The islands are home to a variety of plants and animals
that are unique to them. These islands sustain a broad
variety of corals and house some of India’s best
evergreen forests. Only the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands in India have endemic island biodiversity
Practical 2: Formulate questionnaire or /online surveys for assessment of
impact of climate change on people.

• Prepare atleast 10 questions and collect response from atleast 20 people

• Finally, prepare a note based on their response.
• Sample: https://www.questionpro.com/survey-templates/climate-change-awareness-
survey-template/
Endemic species of India
Species are said to be endemic when they are
exclusive to a single location and cannot be
found anywhere else on the planet.
The following is a list of the species that are
unique to India and can only be found here:

1. The Asiatic Lion in the Gir Forest (also

endangered)
The Asiatic Lion, commonly known as the
Indian Lion, is endemic to only the Gir Forest
National Park in Gujarat and the areas
immediately around it. Listed as an
endangered species by the International
Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) since
2010, the Asiatic lion only has about 500-650
individuals left in the country.

2. Kashmir Stag (Hangul), Kashmir Valley (also

endangered)
The Dachigam National Park in the Kashmir
Valley and the Chamba district in Himachal
Pradesh are home to the Hangul, another
name for the Kashmir Stag. Both of these
areas are located in Himachal Pradesh.
3. The Lion-Tailed Macaque, Western Ghats (also
endangered)
Only the Western Ghats of Southern India are
known to be home to this one-of-a-kind primate
species, making it the world’s rarest, most
endangered primate.

4. Purple Frog, Western Ghats

The only place on Earth where you can find the
purple frog, also called the Pignose frog, is in the
rainforests of India’s western ghats. It burrows
underground for most of its existence.
5. Sangai Deer, Loktak Lake (also endangered)
In addition to its other name, the Brow Antlered
Deer, this species can only be found in Manipur’s
Keibul Lamjao National Park. This park is a marshy
wetland and it is situated in the southern portions
of Loktak lake.

6. Nilgiri Tahr, Nilgiri Hills (also endangered)

It is an endangered species of wild sheep that can
only be found in the unique Nilgiri Hills of the
Western Ghats.
7. Pygmy Hog, Assam
8. Bronzeback Vine Snake,
Western Ghats
9. Nilgiri Blue Robin, Nilgiri
Hills
10. Malabar Civet, Western
Ghats
11. Anaimalai Gliding Frog,
Anaimalai Hills
12. Namdapha Flying Squirrel,
Arunachal Pradesh
13. Indian Giant Squirrel
14. Bonnet Macaque
 According to the IUCN RED List 2021, a total of 199 species
in India are in the severely endangered category. There were
a total of twenty species from India that were added to the
IUCN Red List of Critically Endangered Species in the year
2021.

Endangered The Kolar leaf-nosed bat (Hipposideros hypophyllus), or

species examples leafletted leaf-nosed bat is a species of bat in the family
Hipposideridae. It is endemic to India. Its natural habitats
are subtropical or tropical dry forests and caves.

The Namdapha flying squirrel (Biswamoyopterus biswasi) is

an arboreal, nocturnal flying squirrel endemic to Arunachal
Pradesh in northeast India,
• The Malabar large-spotted civet (Viverra civettina), also known as the Malabar civet,
is a viverrid endemic to the Western Ghats of India. It is listed as Critically
Endangered on the IUCN Red List as the population is estimated to number fewer than
250 mature individuals

• The pigmy hog, once thought to be extinct, is also one of the most threatened
mammals on Earth. Found only in the tall grasslands of Assam in India, the pygmy
hog was rediscovered in 1971 when a group was found sheltering from a grassland fire
in a neighbouring tea plantation.
• The blackbuck, due to severe poaching – hunted
especially in the princely states of India for their
pelts – and habitat loss, the blackbuck, or Indian
antelope, is now one of the most endangered
species in India. In 1947, there were around
80,000 blackbucks. But that number had fallen to
8,000 in less than 20 years. It is found in
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
Odisha, and other areas throughout peninsular
India

• The snow leopards used to have much larger

habitats and prowled across the mountain
ranges of Asia. Now, they can only be found in
Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and the
western and eastern parts of the Himalayas, with
population numbers down to about 500 in India.
As female snow leopards tend to produce only
one to two cubs once every two years, it also
makes it harder for the species to recover its
numbers.
 IUCN red list criteria and categories
The IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species (also known as the IUCN Red The International Union for
List or Red Data List), founded in 1964, is the Conservation of
the world’s most comprehensive
inventory of the
Nature (IUCN)is the world’s
global conservation status of biological main authority on the
species (Animal, fungus and plant conservation status of species.
species).

A series of Regional Red Lists are The IUCN Red List is based upon
produced by countries or precise criteria to evaluate the
organizations, which assess the rate of extinction of thousands
risk of extinction to species of species and subspecies. These
within a political management criteria are relevant to all species
unit. and all regions of the world.
 Purpose of the IUCN Red List Data
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Species are classified by the
IUCN Red List into nine
groups, specified through
criteria such as rate of
decline, population size, area
of geographic distribution,
and degree of population
and distribution
fragmentation
 Following are the 9 categories
in the IUCN red list:

1. Extinct (EX) – No known individuals remaining (Eg:

Dodo)
2. Extinct in the wild (EW) – Known only to survive in
captivity, or as a naturalized population outside its
historic range (Eg: Père David's deer, Scimitar oryx)
3. Critically endangered (CR) – Extremely high risk of
extinction in the wild. (Eg: Pygmy Hog, Great Indian
Bustard)
4. Endangered (EN) – High risk of extinction in the wild
(Eg: Asiatic Lion)
5. Vulnerable (VU) – High risk of endangerment in the
wild. (Eg: Mountain zebra, Indian rhinoceros)
6. Near threatened (NT) – Likely to become
endangered soon. (Assam macaque, Tibetan
macaque, Guinea baboon)
7. Least concern (LC) – Lowest risk. Does not qualify
for a more at-risk category. Widespread and
abundant taxa are included in this category (Eg:
Gray mouse lemur)
8. Data deficient (DD) – Not enough data to assess its
risk of extinction.
9. Not evaluated (NE) – Has not yet been evaluated
against the criteria
 Values of Biodiversity
• Biodiversity serves a dual purpose in
providing ecological functions. Biodiversity
helps living beings procure food, fuel, fibre
and other extractable commodities.
Biodiversity is vital for the ecosystem because
it provides regulatory, cultural, and sustaining
functions.

• Humans place a high value on biodiversity

because they rely on it for social, economic,
and environmental wellbeing. Biodiversity
also helps to shape our culture and identity.
Different character traits are regularly
integrated into cultural practices.

• Other elements of human wellbeing, such as

wellness and economic and political security,
depend on biodiversity. Encompassing
prospective sources of multiple foods,
medications, and energy can help economic
activity and make the population healthier.
When adjusted for use in wellbeing, agrarian,
or industrial applications, biodiversity has
proven to be extremely valuable.
Different categories of Biodiversity value:

1. Ecosystem/ Ecological values: The

environmental values of biodiversity can
be evaluated by analyzing the functions of
the ecosystem. Ecosystem services, such
as intensive agricultural production
ecosystems, help in maintaining human
needs and activities. These include the
establishment and maintenance of fertile
soil, retention of fresh groundwater
resources through vegetation and the
output of oxygen by ground plants and
microalgae.

2. Economic Value: Biodiversity has a

tremendous economic perspective on
food, livestock feed, medicative, ethical,
and social ideals. Biodiversity is an
important resource for many industry
sectors that regulate the world economy.
3. Social Value: The social value of biodiversity includes aesthetic, recreational,
cultural and spiritual values. To this can be added health benefits resulting
from recreational and other activities. While traditional societies which had a
small population and required less resources had preserved their biodiversity
as a life supporting resource, modern man has rapidly depleted it even to the
extent of leading to the irrecoverable loss due to extinction of several species.
Thus apart from the local use or sale of products of biodiversity there is the
social aspect in which more and more resources are used by affluent societies.
The biodiversity has to a great extent been preserved by traditional societies
that valued it as a resource and appreciated that its depletion would be a
great loss to their society.
4. Ethical and Moral Value: Biodiversity has enormous economic potential in
terms of food, livestock feed, medications, etc. Biodiversity is vital for many
areas of the economy.
5. Aesthetic Value
The beauty of our planet is due to biodiversity.
Otherwise, it would have looked like any other
deserted planet, which is scattered throughout
the universe. Biological diversity enhances the
quality of life and contributes significantly to some
of nature’s most beautiful aspects. Biodiversity
makes a significant contribution to the
gorgeousness of the landscape.
6. Consumptive use value: This refers
to natural products that are used for
food, such as livestock feed, wood
products, fuelwood, and other
purposes. Humans consume 40,000
flora and fauna species daily. Many
people remain dependent on wildlife
for the majority of their necessities,
such as nutrition, temporary housing,
and clothing.

7. Productive Use Value: This implies

products that are sourced and
commercially marketed. Almost all of
the crops grown today have evolved
from wild varieties. Biotechnologists
are continuously experimenting with
wild plant species to create new,
more productive disease-resistant
variants.
 What is Sacred
Groves?
• Sacred groves are patches of forested areas
or individual trees protected by local
communities or religious groups as sacred
or holy spaces. These groves are typically
found in regions with a long history of
nature worship and animistic beliefs.

• Different names in different parts of the

world know sacred groves. For example, in
India, they are called 'Devara Kadu' in
Kannada, 'Devrai' in Marathi, and 'Sarna' in
the Chota Nagpur Plateau region. They are
known as 'backups' in South Africa, 'sacred
forests' in West Africa, and 'kaya forests' in
Kenya.

• In many cases, sacred groves have been

protected for centuries or even millennia,
and have survived despite the pressures of
deforestation and modernization. They are
often seen as a symbol of the community's
commitment to preserving their traditional
way of life and protecting the natural
environment.
• These special forests are found in places where
there are many different types of animals and
plants. People are starting to realize how
important these forests are for nature and for
people's culture and are working to keep them
safe and healthy.

• In recent years, there has been growing

recognition of the importance of sacred groves
for conservation efforts and their cultural and
spiritual value. Many NGOs and government
agencies in India are working to protect and
promote the conservation of sacred groves,
recognizing their potential as valuable cultural
and ecological resources.
 Importance of Sacred Groves
in India
These groves play an essential role in the preservation of
biodiversity and the conservation of endangered species. Here is
the importance of Sacred Groves in India:

• They serve as a natural resource for the local communities

and provide them with various ecosystem services such as
clean air, water, and soil.
• Sacred groves also play a significant role in the cultural and
religious practices of the local communities and are often
associated with rituals and ceremonies.
• Sacred groves also act as carbon sinks, absorbing carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere and helping mitigate climate
change's effects.
• They are home to a wide variety of medicinal plants and herbs
used for traditional healing practices.
• Sacred groves also help in soil conservation and prevent soil
erosion, which is essential for maintaining the fertility of the
land.
• Sacred groves also serve as essential ecotourism destinations,
which generate income for the local communities. By
preserving these groves, the communities can benefit
economically while protecting their natural and cultural
heritage.
• Protecting these groves also helps maintain the natural
balance of the ecosystem, which is crucial for the
survival of various species of flora and fauna.

• In addition to biodiversity conservation, sacred groves

also help conserve cultural diversity. They are often
associated with local legends, myths, and beliefs
transmitted orally from generation to generation. Thus,
the protection of these groves also helps to preserve
the intangible cultural heritage of the community.

• The conservation of sacred groves also helps to

mitigate the impacts of natural disasters such as floods,
landslides, and droughts. The dense vegetation cover
and tree root system help stabilize the soil and prevent
erosion, reducing the risk of these disasters.

• Sacred groves also have a positive impact on the overall

well-being of the community. The greenery and
tranquillity of these groves provide a peaceful and
calming environment, which has been shown to have
mental and physical health benefits.
 Some Major Sacred Groves
in India
Some major examples of Sacred Groves in India is as follows :
Odisha
• In Odisha, groves are referred to as Jahera or Thakuramma.
• These groves are dedicated to deities such as Jhakeri, Gram
Siri, Gossa Pennu, Pitabaldi, Loha Penu, Gaisri, and Pat Baram.
• Some examples of sacred groves in Odisha, includes Alligam,
Maulimaa, Bhairabguda, Dudhari, Mali Dusara, and Kanta
Basunsuni, are devoted to these deities.
• The sacred groves in Odisha are home to some unique socio-
cultural plants like Saraca asoca, Mesua ferrea, Memecylon
umbellatum, Michelia champaca, Bombax ceiba, Murraya
paniculata, Couroupita guianensis, and more.
Assam
• Sacred groves are special places in nature where people have
traditions that help protect the plants and animals living there.
For example, in some groves, it's not allowed to hunt deer
during their mating season. This is to help the deer have babies
and make sure there are enough deer in the future. Also, the
groves provide a safe place for birds to build their nests and
take care of their babies. This helps ensure that the birds have
a good chance of surviving and growing their populations.
Goa
• The village of Keri in Sattari, Goa is home to some of the
most well-preserved sacred groves in the state.
• These groves are known for their unique tradition of
offering terracotta animals. Some notable sacred groves
in Goa include Devachi Rai in Kopardem, Holiyechirai in
Caranzol, and Nirankarachirai in Bambar. The deities to
which the sacred groves in Goa are dedicated are Durgah
and Rashtroli, locally referred to as Deorai and Pann.

Haryana
• In Haryana, a grove is commonly referred to as a
Gurudwara grove.
• These groves serve as a sanctuary for medicinal plants
and a provider of honey, fruits, and water.
• Among the various plant species in these sacred groves
are White Pear, Mandarin, Bruisewort, Garden Violet, Lac
tree, Elm, Pipal, and Banyan.

Jammu & Kashmir

• The Banis are the revered forests in Jammu & Kashmir,
characterized by various plant species such as Indian
plum, Mountain ebony, Pipal, Three-leaved Caper, White
Fig, Bengal quince, and Neem.
 Threats to Biodiversity: Habitat loss,
degradation and fragmentation
• Habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation are viewed as
the largest cause of biodiversity loss and the primary factor
resulting in species being listed as threatened or
endangered.
• Habitat loss occurs when natural habitats are converted to
human uses such as cropland, urban areas, and
infrastructure development (e.g. roads, dams, powerlines).
For example, in Nebraska, 98 percent of the tallgrass
prairie and 35 percent of wetlands have been lost, primarily
due to conversion to cropland.
• Habitats are degraded when their condition declines due
to factors such as pollution, invasive species, and over-
utilization of natural resources. Habitats can also be
degraded when natural processes they depend on, such as
fire or flooding, are altered by human activity.
• Habitat fragmentation occurs when large blocks of
habitat are cut into smaller pieces by development such as
roads or housing. The remaining blocks of habitat may be
too small to sustain populations of a number of species and
the fragmentation often results in barriers to species
movement.
 Poaching of wildlife
Poaching is defined as an illegal killing of wild animals for their meat,
recreation or the rare products obtained from them. The products
include fur, hides, ivory, horns etc.
Some animals that are poached are woolly mammoth for their fur,
tigers for their kin, deer for the skin and horns, elephants for the tusks,
crocodile for their skin, rhinos, leopards etc. These naturally occurring
products have very high demand and the poachers make a good
amount of money by selling these products.

Causes of poaching:
1. Highly-priced and Valued Animal Parts, Products, and Pets.
2. Unproven Religious, Aphrodisiac, and Medical Values
3. Food and Exotic Dishes for the Elite
4. Organized Criminal Networks
5. Habitat Loss, Logging, and Expansion of Human Settlement
Areas

Effect of poaching- Due to illegal hunting and poaching the number of

the animals have declined significantly. Some of the animals like
tigers, rhinoceros have become endangered due to illegal killing. The
indirect effect of poaching is it is disturbing the ecological balance of
nature and disrupting the food chain.
 Man-wildlife conflict
• Human-wildlife conflict is when an encounter between humans and wildlife leads to negative results, such as
loss of property, livelihoods, and even life. Defensive and retaliatory killing may eventually drive these species
to extinction.
• As human populations and demand for space continue to grow, people and wildlife are increasingly interacting and
competing for resources, which can lead to increased human-wildlife conflict.
• Wildlife and the communities that live near it are most directly impacted by human-wildlife conflict. While
human-wildlife conflict can result in the decline and potential eradication of species, communities can experience
financial losses and threats to health and safety, livelihoods, food security, and property.
• Human-wildlife conflict will always exist as our world becomes increasingly crowded; however, effective, well-
planned management, holistic and integrated approaches can reduce and minimize conflict in the long term.
• Such human-wildlife conflict management strategies can create opportunities and benefits not only for biodiversity
and impacted communities, but for society, sustainable development, production, and the global economy at large.
222 elephants were killed by electrocution across the country between 2018-19 and
2020-21. Out of which 45 deaths caused by trains, 29 by poachers and 11 by poisoning.

Similarly, if we talk about human causalities of conflict with animals, 1,579 humans
are killed by elephants in three years that is 585 in 2019-20, 461 in 2020-21, and 533 in
2021-22.
Among tigers, too, 29 were killed by poaching between 2019 and 2021, while 197 tiger deaths are under scrutiny.

Tigers killed 125 humans in reserves between 2019 and 2021. Maharashtra accounted for nearly half these deaths, at 61.
 Biological invasion with emphasis on
Indian biodiversity

• Biological invasions threaten biodiversity in terrestrial, freshwater,

and marine ecosystems, challenging conservation efforts.
• Invasive alien species can modify community composition, may
cause local extinctions and the loss of native genotypes, modify
habitats, and affect food-web properties, ecosystem processes and
functioning.
• Their ecological impacts can be so severe that they are considered
as one of the major drivers of biodiversity loss across the globe (
CBD, 2016).
• Invasive alien species can also have detrimental socio-economic
impacts, affecting ecosystem services and human well-being.
• Alien species are mom-native or exotic organisms that occur outside
their natural adapted ranges and dispersal potential
• These invasive species are widely distributed in all kinds of
ecosystems throughout the world
• India implemented national-scale invasive plant monitoring by
integrating it with the umbrella project on tiger assessment.
Embarking on this big data, we show that two-thirds of India's
natural areas are under multiple plant invasions, owing to the legacy
of anthropogenic modifications.
 Invasive species management & Grassland restoration

Uncontrolled fire

Chromolaena
Proliferation of Invasive species

Grassland obligatory species

(-)

Cattle grazing

Law & enforcement

Mikani
a

Collection of NTFP and

other anthropogenic pressures

2007-2009 2009-2011 2012-2017 2011-2015 2015-2020 2018-2022 2019-2023

Dr. Anukul Nath, Scientist C, Wildlife Institute of India

 Current mass extinction
• A mass extinction event is when species vanish much faster than
they are replaced. This is usually defined as about 75% of the
world's species being lost in a short period of geological time - less
than 2.8 million years.
• The Sixth Mass Extinction, also known as the Holocene Extinction
and Anthropocene Extinction, is an ongoing extinction event of
species during the present era (known as the Holocene Epoch) due
to human activity.
• We are experiencing drastic changes to our planet,
including extreme weather such as flooding, drought and
wildfires.
• Humans are the cause of these changes. Since the Industrial
Revolution, we have been putting pressure on nature by using its
resources without supporting recovery.
• For example, land use change is continuing to destroy swathes of
natural landscapes. Humans have already transformed over 70% of
land surfaces and are using about three-quarters of freshwater
resources.
• Agriculture is also a leading cause of soil degradation,
deforestation, pollution and biodiversity loss. It is diminishing
wild spaces and driving out countless species from their natural
habitats, forcing them to clash with humans for resources or
leaving them vulnerable.
 •IUCN study:In December 2021,
International Union for Conservation
of Nature (IUCN) on dragonflies and
damselflies revealed that “16% out of
6,016 species are at risk of
extinction”

•In South and Southeast Asia, which

includes India, the situation is even
worse because a quarter of all species
are under threat of extinction.

• IUCN attributes this extinction of small creatures to the fast-declining freshwater breeding
grounds.
• The first such by the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and
Ecosystem Services (IPBES) released in 2019, shows that the current rate and scale of
extinction is unprecedented and is being caused majorly by humans.
• It says the Asia Pacific region lost 45 percent of its vertebrate population in four-and-half
decades, while the average global loss is 68 per cent.
• In the Asia Pacific region, including India that is experiencing loss of species higher than the
global average, habitat degradation is the biggest trigger, followed by species overexploitation
and invasive species and disease. The role of pollution and climate change was proportionately
higher at 16 per cent.
Keystone species
• A keystone species is an organism that helps define an entire ecosystem. Without
its keystone species, the ecosystem would be dramatically different or cease to
exist altogether.
• Any organism, from plants to fungi, may be a keystone species; they are not
always the largest or most abundant species in an ecosystem. However, almost all
examples of keystone species are animals that hugely influence food webs.

Predator as keystone species

When the U.S. government designated land for Yellowstone National Park in the late
19th century, hundreds of wolves roamed the GYE, preying primarily
on abundant herds of elk and bison. Fearing the wolves’ impact on those herds and
local livestock, governments at the local, state, and federal level worked
to eradicate wolves from the GYE. The last remaining wolf pups in Yellowstone
were killed in 1924. Lacking an apex predator, elk populations in Yellowstone
exploded. Elk herds competed for food resources, and plants such as grasses, sedges,
and reeds did not have time or space to grow. Starting in the 1990s, the U.S.
government began reintroducing wolves to the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. The
results have been noteworthy.
Herbivores as keystone species
• Herbivores can also be keystone species. Their
consumption of plants helps control the physical and
biological aspects of an ecosystem.
• In African savannas such as the Serengeti plains in
Tanzania, elephants are a keystone species. Elephants
eat shrubs and small trees, such as acacia, that grow on
the savanna. Even if an acacia tree grows to a height of a
meter or more, elephants are able to knock it over
and uproot it. This feeding behavior keeps
the savanna a grassland and not a forest or woodland.
• With elephants to control the tree population,
grasses thrive and sustain grazing animals such as
antelopes, wildebeests, and zebras

Plants as keystone species

• In some forest communities in tropical
America, figs and a few other plants act as keystone
species .Such plants serve as keystone food resources.
Figs bear fruit year-round in some of these forest
communities, and a large number
of birds and mammals rely heavily on this small group
of plant species during the times of the year when
other food resources are scarce. Without figs, many
species would disappear from the community.
 Flagship species

• A flagship species is a species selected to act as

an ambassador, icon or symbol for a defined
habitat, issue, campaign or environmental
cause.
• By focusing on, and achieving conservation of
that species, the status of many other species
which share its habitat – or are vulnerable to
the same threats - may also be improved.
• Flagship species are usually relatively large, and
considered to be 'charismatic' in western
cultures.
• Flagship species may or may not
be keystone species.
• The Bengal Tiger, Asian Elephant, African Elephant,
and Giant Panda are a few flagship species used by the
World Wildlife Fund.

Benefits of Flagship Species

• The flagship species such as pandas and elephants help
in generating revenue through visits to institutions
where they are kept. This revenue helps in the
protection and sustainability of species.
• The flagship species attract the public due to its unique
features. This way the plight of such creatures can be
brought to the notice of the society and strategies can
be implemented to improve their condition. This
creates awareness regarding biodiversity
conservation among individuals
 Umbrella species

• Umbrella species are species selected for

making conservation-related decisions,
typically because protecting these
species indirectly protects the many
other species that make up the ecological
community of its habitat (the umbrella
effect).
• Maybe the most well-known umbrella
species is the giant panda. Research from
scientists at Duke University showed that
96% of giant panda habitat overlaps with
the habitats of species that are only
found in that area of China. By
protecting the home ranges of the giant
panda, the essential habitat for these
species is also preserved
• Royal Bengal Tiger is an umbrella
species of India
 Indicator species

Indicator species, organism—often a microorganism or a plant—that serves as a measure of the environmental

conditions that exist in a given locale. For example, greasewood indicates saline soil; mosses often indicate acid soil.

Lichens are an example of Indicator species. Environmentalist use Lichen as indicator of

pollution.

Algal blooms can indicate a change in the environment. An increase in nutrients from sedimentation runoff can cause an algal
bloom. The concentration of algae across an area is also a useful indicator of gradients in nutrient availability in a body of water.

Lack of wood storks in everglade ecosystems in the United States indicate that the environment is not suitable to sustain
abundant wading bird life. Conservationists use wood storks as a model example for the health of the everglades.
 Species reintroduction and translocation

Species translocation is an increasingly common practice both in wildlife

conservation and as a mitigation tool, based on intentional and planned moving
animals/plants. From one site for release in another in order o increase a
species’ chance of survival or recovery or as a part of restoration programme.
Captive breeding and the release of captive bred animals is an important
conservation tool for restoring threatened and endangered wildlife populations.

There are 3 types of species translocation:

• introduction: moving into an area where the species is not known to have
existed previously;
• reintroduction: moving into an area where the species used to exist;
• restocking: A number of individuals are added to an existing population.
The Cheetah Project
More than 70 years after India's native subspecies
of the cheetah—the Asiatic cheetah (Acinonyx
jubatus venaticus)—became extinct there, small
numbers of Southeast African cheetah (Acinonyx
jubatus jubatus) have been flown in
from Namibia and South Africa to a national park
in India. The experiment has been permitted by
India's supreme court on a short-term basis to test
long-term adaptation.

Panna’s Tiger Relocation Project

The tiger population in Panna was more than 40 in
the year 2003. However, by the year 2009, the
entire population of the tiger was eliminated (due
to hunting and poaching) and the park was left with
only two tigresses. A decision to relocate two tigers
and two tigresses to the park was taken in June
2009 by the Ministry of Environment and Forest.
Over these years, seven translocated tigers, five
females and two males, gave birth to more than 80
cubs. These numbers have become a reason for the
success story of the tiger relocation project in
Panna National Park
 Contemporary Indian Wildlife issues
• Habitat loss by destruction, fragmentation and degradation: Habitat destruction and
fragmentation can take place by human activities such as felling of trees, dredging rivers,
constructing dams, filling wetlands and mowing fields, use of lands for agriculture,
construction of houses and roads etc. Habitat degradation can take place because of the
increasing pollution level, invasion of new species and changing ecosystems etc.
• Illegal Trading, Hunting and poaching of endangered species: Illegal hunting and
poaching has posed a major threat to wildlife which is further fuelled by the lack of proper
management and use of resources by the forest officials to curb the menace and save
wildlife.
• Climate change: Global warming and climate change has also played a major role in
posing threat to the wildlife. This is also again due to human induced activities which is
done by the burning of fossil fuels etc. which resulted in the changing of the climate
globally.
• Over exploitation of resources: Exploitation and over exploitation of resources for food
and other purposes has resulted in posing a threat to the wildlife, especially to the
endangered species. The over use of the wild animals and plants for food, medicines,
clothing etc has badly affected the wildlife populations and thus has become a threat to
their existence.
• Pollution: The ever increasing pollution level due to human activities and industrial
operations has resulted in the release of harmful and toxic pollutants in the air, water and
land. Hence, it has affected the wildlife in an adverse manner and ultimately posed a
threat to become extinct.
 • Overburdening due to Human Population
Contemporary • Land Use Change
• Overexploitation of resources
threats to Indian • Deforestation
Biodiversity • Climate Change
• Pollution
 Project Tiger
• Back in the early 19th century, There were about 40,000 Royal
Bengal Tigers in India. Within seven decades, Royal Bengal Tiger’s
population dwindled to a mere 1800. It was not only shocking and
alarming but also a reflection of the neglect that was being
heaped upon the National Animal of India. It was an undeniable
failure.
• Project Tiger in India was launched on 1st April 1973 as a major
wildlife conservation project in India. It was launched from the Jim
Corbett National Park of Uttarakhand.
• The initiative is funded by the Union Govt. of India and
administrated under the Ministry of Environment, Forests and
Climate Change. National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) is
the immediate supervising agency.

The stated aims of Project Tiger were

• To identify factors causing a reduction in tiger habitats and
mitigate them through suitable management practices. The
damages already done to the habitat were to be corrected so that
the natural ecosystem can be recovered to the extent possible.
• To maintain a viable tiger population for their economic,
ecological, cultural, and aesthetic significance
 Tiger Census (Counting of Tigers)
- the success of Project Tiger
Owing to the But, in 2018
renewed Tiger Census,
sincerity The crown of
to Tiger the Tiger State
The first Tiger conservation, of India is
Census of the number of been taken
2006 tigers away by Project Tiger
projected 1,41 consistently Karnataka was Madhya looks after 50
1 tigers were increased in the state with Pradesh with tiger
left in the the next the highest 526 Tigers, reserves sprea
country. Since decade. 2014 tiger whereas In 2022 Tiger The total Tiger d
the census Tiger Census- population in Karnataka and Census, Population as across 72,749
methods used estimated 2014. The Uttrakhand Madhya per the Tiger sq. km. of
were 2,226 Bengal recorded tiger were second Pradesh Census green cover in
technology- tigers in India count in the and third in retained the 2022 is 3,682 an effort to
based, the and 2018 state was 408 position with crown of Tiger Tigers, which conserve
results were Tiger Census- as per the 524 and 442 State with 785 was 24% more the populatio
more estimated 2014 tiger Tigers Bengal Tiger than the 2018 n of the Royal
believable 2,967 Tigers census respectively Population Census Bengal Tiger

2006 2014 2014 2018 2022 2022 Today

 Project Elephant
• The Indian Elephant is widely seen in 16 of the 28 states of
India, especially in the Southern part of the Western Ghats,
North-Eastern India, Eastern India, Central India, and Northern
India.
• Conversion of habitats into farmland, Human-Elephant conflict
and an absence of elephant corridors in India were the main
reasons for the decline in the population of elephants.
• Project Elephant is a Central Government sponsored scheme
launched in February 1992.
• Through the Project Elephant scheme, the government helps in
the protection and management of elephants to the states
having wild elephants in a free-ranging population.
• Its population in 2007 was estimated to be between 27,657
and 27,682, while the population in 2012 was estimated to be
between 27,785 and 31,368. According to the most recent
count in 2017, India had 29,964 elephants.

Project Elephant Objectives

• To ensure the Welfare of domesticated elephants
• Protection of elephants, their habitats and elephant corridors.
• Mitigation and prevention of human-elephant conflict.
 Vulture Conservation Breeding
Programme
• Vulture numbers saw a decline as much as 90% in some species in India since the 1990s in one of
the most drastic declines in bird populations in the world. Between the 1990s and 2007, numbers
of three presently critically-endangered species, the Oriental white-backed, long-billed and
slender-billed vultures decreased massively with 99% of the species having been wiped out. The
number of red-headed vultures, also critically-endangered now, declined by 91% while
the Egyptian vultures by 80%.
• The cause of the decline was established as diclofenac, a veterinary nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
drug (NSAID) in 2004, which is used to treat pain and inflammatory diseases such as gout in
carcasses that vultures would feed off. Just 0.4-0.7% of animal carcasses contaminated with
diclofenac was sufficient to decimate 99% of vulture populations.
• The MoEFCC released the Action Plan for Vulture Conservation 2006 with the Drugs Controller
General of India (DCGI) banning the veterinary use of diclofenac in the same year.
• The Central Zoo Authority (CZA) and Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) also established the
Vulture Conservation Breeding Programme.
• The Central Zoo Authority (CZA) has taken initiative in establishing five vulture conbservation
breeding centers in the zoos at Junagadh, Bhopal, Hydrabad and Bhubaneswar in 2007 and at
Ranchi in 2009.
• At present the centre houses a total 160 Vultures which includes 63 White-backed Vultures, 74
Long-billed Vultures, 21 Slender-billed Vultures and 2 Himalayan Griffons. This is the largest
collection of the three critically endangered Gyps species of vulture at one place anywhere in the
world.
 Project Great Indian Bastard

• Great Indian Bustards (GIBs) are the state bird of Rajasthan, India and are locally
called Godawan.
• It is the heaviest flying bird indigenous to the Indian subcontinent.
• The bird represents the healthiness of the ecology and is regarded as the “flagship
grassland species”.
• Once more than 1000 individuals few decades back, bustard population shrunk to
745 in the year 1978, 600 in 2001, 300 in 2008 and not more than 125 in 2013.
• IUCN status says that it is critically endangered because it faced collision/electric
shock with power transmission lines, got hunted, and experienced loss of habitat
due to extensive evolution of agricultural practices and more such reasons.
• Rajasthan government has established the ‘Great Indian Bustard Project’ to
construct breeding chambers for the bird. The Government also developed
infrastructure to decrease human pressure on the going-to-be-extinct species
habitats.
The listed actions need to be undertaken to improve the status of the Great
Indian Bustard and safeguard the species.

•The field staff must do intensive patrolling.

•Constructing checkpoints and obstacles in key areas
•Establishing a flying squad under the command of a range officer or higher.
•Consolidating the current wireless network
•Habitat conservation by designating certain bird-exclusive zones impermeable
to human interference and limiting anthropogenic pressures.
•Enriching the habitat by introducing plants like Lasiurus Sindicus (Sewan grass)
and adding amenities like water gazellers.
•Farmer and local incentive programs for information sharing and species
conservation.
•Involving locals in ecotourism and eco-development initiatives.
 Crocodile Conservation Project

• Crocodilians were threatened in India due to indiscriminate commercial killing and severe habitat
loss until the Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972.
• By the 1970s, all three crocodile species (Gharial, Mugger crocodile, and Saltwater crocodile) in
Odisha's river systems were on the verge of extinction.
• Crocodiles were scarce due to increased human activity in rivers and other traditional habitats,
resulting in a reduction in the extent of habitable stretches. In addition, predation reduces the
survival rate of crocodile hatchlings in the wild.
• Crocodile Conservation Project was launched in 1975 in various states.
• The Gharial and Saltwater Crocodile Conservation Program was launched in Odisha in early 1975,
followed by the Mugger Conservation Program.

Indian Crocodile Conservation Project - Objectives

• Creating sanctuaries to protect the remaining crocodilians in their natural habitat.
• To quickly rebuild natural populations, more than 7000 crocodiles have been restocked, including
4000 gharial (Gavialis gangeticus), 1800 mugger (Crocodylus palustris), and 1500 saltwater crocodiles
(Crocodylus porosus)
• To promote captive breeding.
• To conduct research to improve management.
• To increase the number of trained personnel on project sites through the (then) Central Crocodile
Breeding and Management Training Institute in Hyderabad.
• Involve the community in the project on a personal level.
• As a result of the programme, the
estimated number of saltwater
crocodiles in India increased from 96 in
1976 to 1,640 in 2012.
• Through rear and release operations,
the Project attempted to compensate
for natural losses caused by death and
predation.
• This included collecting eggs from nests
as soon as they were laid, incubating
and hatching the eggs in hatcheries
under temperature and humidity
control, rearing the young juveniles,
marking and releasing the young
crocodiles into Nature in protected
areas, and assessing the degree of
success in restocking any protected area
with crocodiles released from
hatcheries.
• To accomplish these goals, three
separate research units for the Gharial,
Salt Water Crocodile, and Mugger.
• Captive breeding plans for all three
species were pursued at
 Silent Valley Movement

• 1970: the Kerala State Electricity Board (KSEB) proposes a hydroelectric dam across the
Kunthipuzha River that runs through Silent Valley, that will submerge 8.3 sq km of untouched
moist evergreen forest.
• The dam over the top stream, according to British technicians, can help generate
hydroelectricity. The primary objective of the project was to generate 120 megawatts of
electrical power and 240 megawatts of electrical power from water.
• The silent valley campaign was launched by Kerela Sasthra Sathiya Parishad (KSSP), an NGO .
• Under the leadership of the World Wildlife Fund India’s vice president at the time, a task force
was formed. The task force worked on the project for more than a year and carried out several
surveys that suggested stopping it.
• According to the task force’s report, the construction of the project will seriously to the flora
and fauna, as well as the water. This will result in high-scale forest disasters.
• The state government approved the project ban proposal, and the KSSP launched a significant
signature drive to stop its construction.
• The Environmental Protection Act of 1986, which established regulations for the avoidance of
environmental pollution and the preservation of habitats, was made possible by the movement.
• With the intention of protecting the distinctive biodiversity of the area, the Indian government
designated Silent Valley as a national park in 1985. The 89.52 square kilometre national park is
home to numerous rare and endangered plant and animal species.
• The Lion-tailed macaque, Nilgiri tahr, and Silent Valley whistling thrush are just a few of the
severely endangered plant and animal species that call the Silent Valley home.
 Save the Western Ghats
Movement
• The Save the Western Ghats Movement (SWGM) was a
landmark event in environmental activism in India. It was
one of the first of its kind in the country and became the
model for numerous campaigns all over India.
• In October 1986, Peaceful Society, organised a national
consultation on environment, during which it was decided
to organize a march along the entire length of the Western
Ghats, to focus attention on the urgent need to halt the
process of degradation that was threatening to create
irremediable damage to the entire area.
• The goal was to create an integrated Ecological perspective
providing for both environmental protection as well as the
rights of the rural communities
• The march had two Joint Coordinating Agencies, one for the
Northern Districts, in Gujarat and most of the Western
Maharashtra and another for the Southern states of Goa,
Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
• A National Advisory Committee was formed, with the
renowned anthropologist, Prof. K.C. Malhotra as the
Chairperson and with eminent persons in various related
fields as members to provide support and advice.
The March: November 1987 – February 1988

• The March was a 100 days event, which included 95 days of actual
travel along the entire length of the Ghats plus 5 days of
Conference and meetings in Goa.
• The march was in two teams, one starting from Navapur in the
North and the other from Kanyakumari in the south.
• Representatives from over 160 Organizations and thousands of
individuals participated in the march, the number sometimes
swelling to several hundred at any one time for shorter stretches.
There were over 600 meetings conducted during the course of the
route
• The SWGM was a landmark event in the environmental sector, on
par with other key movements like the Chipko Movement and
later on the Narmada Bachao Andolan. Even today it is hailed as a
truly historic event and has been the inspiration and the model
for many other similar movements and marches all over the