Chapter 9

Database Systems

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 Background

• Data stored in independent files

• Problems:
• Data redundancy
• Data inconsistency
• Lack of data integrity or standardization

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 Data Integrity

• It is the maintenance of, and the assurance of the

accuracy, consistency of data over its entire
life-cycle, and is a critical aspect to the design,
implementation and usage of any system which
stores, processes, or retrieves data.

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 Database

A collection of data that is multidimensional in

the sense that internal links between its entries
make the information accessible from a variety
of perspectives

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 Figure 9.1 A file versus a
database organization

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 Figure 9.2 The conceptual layers
of a database implementation

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 Schemas

• Schema: A description of the structure of an

entire database, used by database software to
maintain the database
• Subschema: A description of only that portion
of the database pertinent to a particular user’s
needs, used to prevent sensitive data from being
accessed by unauthorized personnel

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 Database Management Systems

• Database Management System (DBMS): A software

layer that manipulates a database in response to
requests from applications
• Distributed Database: A database stored on multiple
machines
– DBMS will mask this organizational detail from its users
• Data independence: The ability to change the
organization of a database without changing the
application software that uses it

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 Database Management System
(DBMS)

• Consolidate data into databases that can be

accessed by different programs .
• DBMS serves as interface between users and
databases.

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 The Objectives of DBMS

 Integrating Databases
 Reducing Redundancy
 Maintaining Integrity

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 Functions of DBMS

Retrieving Data, Editing. Adding, deleting

Storing, Distributing Data and Organizing Data

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 Reason for using databases

Required in nearly every business

Can automate tasks and Increases business efficiency
Commercial websites use databases i.e. online stores

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 Types of Databases

Enterprise Database: Large multiuser database systems developed and

maintained by IT professionals.
Personal Database (PC Database): Typically reside on personal computers
and are designed to support a particular function. Microsoft Access is the most
popular
Microsoft SQL Server: Only runs on Microsoft platforms. Eight different
versions exist
MySQL: Leading DBMS for Linux * Very inexpensive *Features are needed
in business
Oracle: Most popular enterprise-level DBMS: Platform independent
DB2: Venerable IBM database .Platform independent

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 Database Models

• Database model: A conceptual view of a

database
– Relational database model
– Object-oriented database model

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 Object-oriented Databases

• Object-oriented Database: A database

constructed by applying the object-oriented
paradigm
– Each entity stored as a persistent object
– Relationships indicated by links between objects
– DBMS maintains inter-object links

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 Relational Database Model

• Relation: A rectangular table

– Attribute: A column in the table
– Tuple: A row in the table

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 Figure 9.3 A relation containing
employee information

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 Figure 9.4 A relation containing
redundancy

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 Relational Design

• Avoid multiple concepts within one relation

– Can lead to redundant data
– Deleting a tuple could also delete necessary but
unrelated information

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 Improving a Relational Design

• Decomposition: Dividing the columns of a

relation into two or more relations, duplicating
those columns necessary to maintain
relationships
– Lossless or nonloss decomposition: A “correct”
decomposition that does not lose any information

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 Figure 9.5 An employee database
consisting of three relations

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 Figure 9.6 Finding the
departments in which employee
23Y34 has worked

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 Figure 9.7 A relation and a
proposed decomposition

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 Relational Operations

• Select: Choose rows

• Project: Choose columns
• Join: Assemble information from two or more
relations

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 Figure 9.8 The SELECT
operation

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 Figure 9.9 The PROJECT
operation

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 Figure 9.10 The JOIN operation

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 Figure 9.11 Another example of
the JOIN operation

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 Figure 9.12 An application of the
JOIN operation

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 Structured Query Language (SQL)

• Operations to manipulate tuples

– insert
– update
– delete
– select

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 SQL Examples

• select EmplId, Dept

from ASSIGNMENT, JOB
where ASSIGNMENT.JobId = JOB.JobId
and ASSIGNMENT.TermDate = “*”

• insert into EMPLOYEE

values (‘43212’, ‘Sue A. Burt’,
’33 Fair St.’, ‘444661111’)

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 SQL Examples (continued)

• delete from EMPLOYEE

where Name = ‘G. Jerry Smith’

• update EMPLOYEE
set Address = ‘1812 Napoleon Ave.’
where Name = ‘Joe E. Baker’

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 In-Class Exercise (1)

• Given the relation X below

X: A B C
2 5 7
3 3 3
4 3 2
5 2 8
what value will be extracted by the following query?
TEMP  SELECT from X where B > C
RESULT  PROJECT A from TEMP
A. 2 B. 3 C. 4 D. 5

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 In-Class Exercise (2)

• Given the two relations X and Y below

X: A B Y: C D
7 s t 3
2 z r 2
what value would be retrieved by executing the following SQL
statement?
select Y.C
from X, Y
where X.A < Y.D
A. s B. z C. t D. r

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 Maintaining Database Integrity

• Transaction: A sequence of operations that must all

happen together
– Example: transferring money between bank accounts
• Transaction log: A non-volatile record of each
transaction’s activities, built before the transaction is
allowed to execute
– Commit point: The point at which a transaction has been
recorded in the log
– Roll-back: The process of undoing a transaction

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 Maintaining database integrity
(continued)

• Simultaneous access problems

– Incorrect summary problem
– Lost update problem
• Locking = preventing others from accessing
data being used by a transaction
– Shared lock: used when reading data
– Exclusive lock: used when altering data

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 Advantages of Object-oriented
Databases

• Matches design paradigm of object-oriented

applications
• Intelligence can be built into attribute handlers
• Can handle exotic data types
– Example: multimedia

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 Sequential Files

• Sequential file: A file whose contents can only

be read in order
– Reader must be able to detect end-of-file (EOF)
– Data can be stored in logical records, sorted by a
key field
• Greatly increases the speed of batch updates

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 Figure 9.14 The structure of a
simple employee file implemented
as a text file

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 Figure 9.15 A procedure for
merging two sequential files

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Figure 9.16
Applying the merge
algorithm (Letters
are used to represent
entire records.
The particular letter
indicates the value
of the record’s
key field.)

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 Indexed Files

• Index: A list of key values and the location of

their associated records

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 Figure 9.17 Opening an
indexed file

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 Social Impact of Database
Technology

• Problems
– Massive amounts of personal data are being collected
• Often without knowledge or meaningful consent of affected people
– Data merging produces new, more invasive information
– Errors are widely disseminated and hard to correct
• Remedies
– Existing legal remedies often difficult to apply
– Negative publicity may be more effective

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