CELL ORGANELLES

Nida Lathiya
M.Sc., M.Phil., Ph.D.
Associate Professor
Department of Physiology
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of 60 minutes lecture, DPT

Semester-I students will be able to;

 Identify the organelles of cell.

 Explain the functions of each cell

organelle.

05/08/2024 2
 Q. IS NUCLEUS THE CELL
ORGANELLE ?
- Controls center
(brain) of the cell

- Contains genetic
information (DNA) on
special strands
(chromosomes) and
controls the functions
of the entire cell by
regulating gene
expression.
05/08/2024 3
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)
 Complex Series / Network of
Tubules in Cytoplasm.

 Outer Limb of its Membrane,

continuous with nuclear
membrane, for easy passage
of nuclear substance into
cytoplasm.

 Tubules also Interconnect with

one another.

 Provides Conducting
Medium for transport of the
Synthesized / Secretory
substances.
05/08/2024 4
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)
 A Passageway into the Cell.

 Rough ER (RER) / Granular-

Protein synthesis.

 Smooth ER (SER) / Agranular-

Lipid synthesis, Provides site
for enzyme reactions in
steroid hormone production
and inactivation, Storage of
Ca2+ in striated muscle cells.

05/08/2024 5
05/08/2024 6
 RIBOSOMES
 Consists of RNA, synthesize
proteins.

 Two subunits of unequal

sizes, 60S and 40S (made on
the basis of their rates of
sedimentation in
ultracentrifuge).

 FUNCTION: Transfer of
messages from DNA.
05/08/2024 7
 Formation of (immature) ribosomes Begins in
Nucleus:

 DNA genes in chromosomes Cause: RNA

Synthesis, then Stored in Nucleoli / also
transported out to Cytoplasm.

 RNA + Specific Proteins in Cytoplasm: Form

Mature Ribosomes.

 Complex Structures Contain many different

proteins & rRNAs, sites for protein synthesis.

05/08/2024 8
Functions of (2) Types of
Ribosomes:
 Attached & Free ii) Free Ribosomes:
Ribosomes.
Synthesize
i) Attached Cytoplasmic Proteins,
Ribosomes: e.g: Hemoglobin (Hb);
 Attached with Endoplasmic Reticulum,
Synthesize: and those proteins
A) Transmembrane Proteins,
B) Most Secreted Proteins &
found in Peroxisomes
C) Most Proteins Stored in:
 Golgi Apparatus,
& Mitochondria
 Lysosomes,
 Endosomes (vesicular structures).

All those Proteins have:

 Hydrophobic End &
 Polypeptide Chains Extruded into
Endoplasmic Reticulum.
05/08/2024 9
 GOLGI APPARATUS
Functions Involved in
Processing Proteins Formed in:

• Ribosomes (structural
Proteins / Enzymes)

• Secretory Granules
(Hormones)

• Secretory Vesicles
(Neurotransmitters) &

• Endosomes (Phagosomes /
Pinosomes)
05/08/2024 10
05/08/2024 11
05/08/2024 12
 GOLGI APPARATUS & Vesicular Transport:
Collection of Memb.-Enclosed Sacs
(Cisterns)
 Stacked (placed over one another) like Dinner
Plates
 Usually about (6) Sacs in Each
Apparatus
 One/More in Number in Eukaryotic
(multicellular) Cells,
 Usually Near the Nucleus,
 Polarized Structure – with ‘Cis’ and
‘Trans’ Sides.
Quality Control: Protein Chains in E.R. & Golgi
Apparatus, Defective Structure Detected &
Abnormal Proteins Degraded in Lysosomes and
Peroxisomes.

05/08/2024 13
 VESICULAR TRANSPORT
 Membranous Vesicles
Containing:
 Newly Synthesized Proteins –
Bud Off From:
 Granular E.R., Fuse with Cisterns
on ‘Cis’ side of Apparatus,
Proteins then Pass via Other
Vesicles to Middle Cisterns,
 Finally to Cisterns on ‘Trans’ Side,
 From which Vesicles Branch off
into Cytoplasm,
From ‘Trans’ Golgi, Vesicles Shuttle
To Lysosomes and
 To Cell Exterior Via Constitutive /
Non-Constitutive Pathway –
Exocytosis,
Mannose-6-Phosphate Receptors
(MPRs) on Lysosomes,
 Capture Hydrolases Destined /
Required
05/08/2024 for these Organelles 14
 MITOCHONDRION

- Sausage-shaped (shallow-shelved)
structure.

- Power house of the cell.

 Releases food energy from food

molecules through respiration in the
form of ATP.
05/08/2024 15
 MITOCHONDRION
Inner membrane folded
to form infoldings /
shelves / cristae, on to
which:Oxidative
enzymes attached.

 Space b/w 2 membranes

– Intracristal space.

 Space at inside the inner

memb. – Matrix Space.

 Contains Dissolved
Enzymes – for extracting
Energy from the nutrients.
05/08/2024 16
Enzyme ATP
synthase ATP Synthase:
generates ATP

Oxidative phosphorylation – ATP

synthesis in mitochondrion.

05/08/2024 17
 FUNCTIONS OF ATP IN
CELLS
 Metabolism, synthesis, and active
transport

 ATP is the main energy source for the

majority of cellular functions. This
includes:
1. Transfers energy between spatially
separate metabolic reactions.
2. Synthesis of macromolecules,
including DNA and RNA, and proteins.
3. ATP plays a critical role in the
transport of macromolecules across
cell membranes, e.g. Primary active
transport;
 Also it is used to cause muscular
contraction, respiratory muscles and
others.
 MITOCHONDRION: SELF-
REPLICATING UNIT OF THE CELL
- Mitochondrion has its own
GENOME / DNA,
 But Less DNA than that of
Nuclear DNA

- Its DNA helps in: Oxidative

phosphorylation:
 (Formation of ATP) with the
contribution / Synthesis of:
 Inner membrane Protein
Enzyme complexes &

- Self Replication of the

mitochondria:
 To increase their number

05/08/2024 19
Mitochondrial Inheritance: Causes of Mitochondrial
 Sperm (father) Diseases:
contributes very few / No Effective Mitochondrial
No Mitochondria to the DNA Repair system
Zygote (developing Hence, 10 times more
embryo Mutation Rate than that of
 Mitochondria Nuclear DNA.
contributed almost Tissues with high metabolic
entirely from the Ovum rates are affected more with
(mother) mitochondrial diseases.
 Hence Mitochondrial Sacrificed Cell Death –
INHERITANCE is: almost
APOPTOSIS also initiated
Entirely MATERNAL (of
from/ regulated by mitochondria
mother)

05/08/2024 20
 LYSOSOMES
 Formed by Breaking off from Golgi
Apparatus.

 Lysosomes more Acidic than Rest of the

Cytoplasm of cell, filled with Granules-
Proteins aggregate to form 40 different
Hydrolases (digestive enzymes) Contains
digestive enzymes that degrades worn out
cell parts.

Lysosomal Hydrolytic Enzyme – Splits

Organic Compound into 2 or more parts &
combines H+ & OH– (H2O) to make them
Polar / charged (soluble in watery medium)
to be absorbed easily after digestion.

05/08/2024 21
 FUNCTIONS OF LYSOSOMES
1. Intracellular Digestive System That Digests:
i) Worn out / Damaged Cellular Components & Structures
ii) Food Particles Endocytised / Ingested By the Cell
iii) Engulfed Unwanted Matter, such as Bacteria

2. Regression of the Tissues:

Tissues Often Regress To Smaller Sizes, e.g.:
i) Uterus after Pregnancy,
ii) Muscles during the long periods of Inactivity
iii) Mammary Glands after / at the End of Lactation
Lysosomes cause Regression / Shrinkage (by Digestion) to Remove
Those (Inactive) Tissue parts

3. Autolysis:
Cells Damaged By: Heat, Cold, Trauma, Chemicals, etc.
Damage to Cell Causes Hydrolases Released by Lysosomes, which
Digest / Remove Damaged Parts of their Own Cells / Tissues AUTOLYSIS.
 FUNCTIONS OF LYSOSOMES

4. Lysosomes Contain Bactericidal Agents:

 Lysozyme – Digests Bacterial Cell Membranes

 Lysoferrin – Binds Iron & Other Metals Essential

For Bacterial Growth

An Acid at pH 5.0 that Activates Hydrolases &

The Same Acid Inactivates Bacterial Metabolic
Systems
 Lysosomal Storage Diseases (rare but fatal):
Congenital Enzyme Deficiency Causes
Tay-Sach’s Disease

 Accumulation of Material in Cells, e.g:

 Lipids / glycogen, in many organs, esp. in liver; cause

Storage Diseases which Leads to Mental Retardation &
Blindness
Some of the Examples include:
i) α–galactosidase deficiency – Fabry’s disease
ii) β-galactocerebrosidase deficiency –Gaucher’s disease

05/08/2024 24
05/08/2024 25
 SUPER OXIDATIVE ENZYMES
(SUPEROXIDES) IN PEROXISOMES

 O2 with H+ from ICF chemicals &

form (hydrogen per oxide) H2O2,
O2– & catalase • Oxidases actively cause
Functions of H2O2, O2–, Catalases: oxidation of lipids, &
 Oxidise Toxic / Poisonous • Catalases – act on
substances, e.g.: hydrogen per oxide (H2O2)
 Alcohol toxicity detoxified &
to liberate Oxygen (O2 –).
 Other Absorbed Poisonous
substances also neutralized.
Increased Conc. Of
 Oxidation of toxic molecules
Superoxides (free radicals) ,
by peroxisomes is an
important function of liver and If Released Cause:
kidney cells
05/08/2024 More Tear & Accelerated 26
Aging Process
 LYSOSOMES PEROXISOMES
Large Irregular Cytoplasmic Structure / Found in Microsomal (vesicular) Fraction of
Vesicular Organelle – Cell,
Surrounded by a Lipid Bi-Layer Present in larger concentrations in liver &
Membrane kidney.
Shape, similar to lysosome
Surrounded by a lipid membrane

Formed by Breaking off from Golgi Formed by – budding off from smooth
Apparatus, Disperse / Spread throughout the Endoplasmic Reticulum
Cytoplasm. Diameter = 0.5 mm (10– 3 m)
Diameter: 250 to 750 nm (10– 9m)

Filled with large number of protein granules, Contain matrix enzymes - oxidases / super
having hydrolytic enzymes oxides (H2O2, O2–) & catalases

Functions: Functions:
1. Intracellular digestion 1. Oxidise Toxic / Poisonous substances, e.g.:
2. Regression of the tissues Alcohol toxicity detoxified &
2. Other Absorbed Poisonous substances also
3. Autolysis neutralized
4. Possess bactericidal agents 3. Increased Conc. of Superoxides (free radicals) ,
If
released Cause more Tear & Accelerated Aging

Process
 ORGANELLES - ↑ THEIR NO. BY
SELF-REPLICATION
Mitochondria and peroxisomes can increase their
number by self-replication.

1. Mitochondrion – has its own genome (DNA)

 This organelle is self-replicative, which means:
 one mitochondrion can form a second one, a third one,
and so on, whenever there is a need in the cell for
increased amounts of ATP

2. Peroxisome – formed by self-replication –

 By budding off from the smooth endoplasmic reticulum
 CENTROSOME / CENTRIOLES
 Located: Near Nucleus, in
Cytoplasm of Eukaryotic /
Multicellular Organisms.
 Made up of: Centrioles &
Surrounding Amorphous
Perinuclear Material.
 Divides into: Centrioles
During Cell Division (Mitosis)
Microtubules in Groups of
Centrioles Are:
(3) Run:
 Short Cylinders, Located
Longitudinally in walls of each
Near Nucleus,
centriole,
 Arranged so that they are at
There are (9) of these triplets-
Right Angles to Each Other,
found During Mitosis / Cell Spaced at regular intervals
Division around the circumference.
05/08/2024 29
CENTROSOMES AS MICROTUBULE-
ORGANISING CENTRES (MTOCS)
 That – contain: γ-tubulin

 Microtubules grow out

of these γ-tubulins in
pericentriolar material.

 When cell divides –

centrosome duplicates itself.

 Pair of centrioles move

apart to form:
 Poles of mitotic spindle
– made up of
microtubules. 30
 REFERENCE BOOK

 Guyton and Hall. Text book of Medical

Physiology. 14th Edition, Unit I, chapter
02.

05/08/2024 31
Any Question ?