By Mushinzimana Xavier

Office P413
Mobile: +250788837257
Email: x.mushinzimana @kist.ac.rw
 LECTURE 8
Sources of magnetic fields
 8.1 Oersted’s experiment

• In 1820, Hans Oersted

discovered that a
current-carrying wire
causes a compass to
deflect.

• when the current is

reversed, the needle
deflects in the opposite
direction

05/07/2024 PHY1261 3
 Direction of the MF
Straight conductor
Several compasses are
placed in a loop in a
horizontal plane
around a long vertical
wire.

When there is no current in the wire, all compasses in the

loop point in the same direction (the direction of the Earth’s
magnetic field).
When the wire carries a strong steady current I, the compass
needles will all deflect in a direction tangent to the circle.
05/07/2024 PHY1261 4
 Direction of the MF
The direction of the
deflection is determined by
the right hand rule: if the
wire is grasped in the right
hand with the thumb in the
direction of the current I,
the fingers curl in the
direction of the magnetic
field B produced by the
current in the wire.

05/07/2024 PHY1261 5
 Direction of the MF
When the current I is reversed, the direction of the deflection
in the compasses will also reverse.
The compass needles point in the direction of the magnetic
field B, therefore, the lines of B form circles around the wire.

The magnitude of B is the same everywhere on a circular path

centered on the wire and lying in the plane that is
perpendicular to the wire.
The magnetic field B is directly proportional to the current
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance from
the wire (as described in the Biot-Savart law).

05/07/2024 PHY1261 6
 Electromagnetism
• Therefore, the sources of magnetic fields
are charges in motion, i.e. electric current.
produces a magnetic field.

• Electric and magnetic fields are different

aspects of a single electromagnetic field.

• Electromagnetism—the interaction between

electricity and magnetism.
05/07/2024 PHY1261 7
8.2. The magnetic field of moving point charges
• Consider a point charge q in motion with velocity v. It
produces a magnetic field B at point P

• The magnitude and direction of this magnetic field is given

 
by o qv  rˆ
B
4 r2
• R hat is a unit vector in direction of vector r
• μo= permeability of free space = 4 x 10-7 T·m·A-1

• The magnitude of B is B 
o | q | v sin 
4 r2
05/07/2024 PHY1261 8
 8.2. The magnetic field of moving point charges
• A moving positive charge produces an electric field that
radiates radially outward. But it produces a magnetic field
with field lines that are circles centered on the line of
velocity v and lying in the planes perpendicular to this line.
• The right hand rule is used to find the direction of the MF:
point your thumb in the direction of motion of the positive
charge, the way your fingers of your right hand curl around
the line of v is the direction of the magnetic field B.
Positive charge moving out of Positive charge moving into
page, B counterclockwise page, B clockwise


05/07/2024 PHY1261 9
 8. 2. The magnetic field of moving point charges
Example:
A point charge q = 1 mC moves in the x direction with v = 108 m/s. It
misses a mosquito by 1 mm. What is the B field experienced by the
mosquito?
0 v
B q 2
108 m/s
4 r
r̂ 90 o
1
B  10 7 N
 10 3 C  108 ms 
A2 10 6 m 2

B  104 T
Exercise: In the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom, the electron moves in a
circular orbit of radius 5.3x10-11 m with a speed of 2.2x106 m/s. If we
are viewing the atom in such a way that the electron’s orbit is in the
plane of the paper with the electron moving clockwise, find the
magnitude and direction of the electric and magnetic fields that the
electron produces at the location of the nucleus (treated as a point).

05/07/2024 PHY1261 10
 8.3. The Magnetic Field of Currents:
The Biot-Savart Law
• Current is a series of moving charges. A segment dl of a
current carrying conductor has chargedq  nqAdl where A is
the conductor cross section and charges are moving with
drift velocity.

• The magnetic field created by such current element is

given by
o | dq | vd sin  o n | q | vd Adl sin 
dB  
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4 PHY1261r 2
4 r 2 11
 8.3. The Magnetic Field of Currents:
The Biot-Savart Law
• But n | q | vd A  jA  I is the current in the wire. Then

o Idl sin 
dB 
4 r2

o Id l  rˆ
• In vector form, this is written as dB 
4 r 2

• To get the total magnetic field, add each element. This

leads to the integration process. r Is a unit vector directed
from the charge to the location where the magnetic field is
created.

05/07/2024 PHY1261 12
 Example 1
A straight wire carries a 10 A current. ABCD is a rectangle with
point D in the middle of a 1.1 mm segment of the wire and
point C in the wire. Find the magnitude and direction of the
magnetic field due to this segment at (a) point A, (b) point B
and © point C . A 14 cm B
5 cm

Segment D C 10 A

Solution:

(a) dB = 0 as θ = 0

05/07/2024 PHY1261 13
 Example 2: B due to a Long Straight Wire

Just add up all of the contributions

ds to the current, keeping track of   0 i ds r
distance r. dB 
4 r 3
  0i  r sin  ds
B  2  dB 
0 2 0 r3

Notice that r  R 2  s 2 . And r sin q =

R, So the integral becomes
 0i  R ds
2 0 ( R 2  s 2 ) 3 / 2
B

The integral is a little tricky, but is


i  s   0i
B 0   
2R  R 2  s 2  0 2R
 0i
So the magnetic field created by a long wire is B
2R
05/07/2024
 Example 3: B at Center of a Circular Arc of Wire
Just add up all of the contributions
ds to the current, but now     0 i ds r
distance r=R is constant, and
r  ds dB 
4 r 3
.   0i 
B   dB   ds
0 4R 2 0

Notice that ds  Rd . So the

integral becomes B  0i   0 i
4R 2 
0
Rd 
4R
 0 i
B B due to current in circular arc
4R

 0i
For a complete loop, f = 2p, so B
0  2R
B at center of a full circle
  I A R  B 
2 05/07/2024
2 R 3
 8.4 Ampere’s law
Using Biot-Savart law requires the calculation of an
elementary magnetic field created by an element of the
current. For some geometries it is possible to use a law
similar to Gauss’s law to calculate the magnitude of fields
created by these geometries. This law is called Ampere’s law.

For a circular path

surrounding a wire,
divide the circular path
into small elements of
length ds and evaluate the
dot product B•ds over the
entire circumference of
the circle.

05/07/2024 PHY1261 16
 8.4 Ampere’s law
• The vectors ds and B are parallel
to   ateachpoint:
each other
B  d l  B  d l  cos θ
   
B  d l  B  d l  cos 0
   
B dl  B dl
• Integrate around the
circumference of the circle. Pull
B out in front of the integral
    because it is constant at every
 B dl  B   dl point on the circumference of
the circle.
05/07/2024 PHY1261 17
 8.4 Ampere’s law
• The equation for the magnetic field B around a straight
conductor is: μ o  I according to Biot-Savart law.
B
2 π r

• The integral
• Therefore:
 d l  2  π 
isrthe circumference of the circle.

  μo  I
 B  d l 
2 π r
 2  π  r
 
 B  d l  μ o  I
05/07/2024 PHY1261 18
 8.4 Ampere’s law
• Ampere’s law generalizes the result of the previous slide.
• It states that the line integral B•ds around any closed path
equals µo·I, where I is the total steady current passing through
any surface bounded by the closed path.
• Mathematically:
 
•
• Notes:  B.dl μ o  I enclosed - Ampere’s law

• Ampere’s law applies to any closed path surrounding a steady

current.
• Ampere’s law only applies to steady currents.
• Like Gauss’s Law, Ampere’s Law is always true. However, it
is only useful for calculation in certain specific situations,
involving highly symmetric currents.
05/07/2024 PHY1261 19
 8.4 Ampère’s Law
• Like Gauss’ law for electric field, Ampere’s law uses
symmetry to calculate B field in terms of a line integral of B
around a closed curve C:
 
 B.dl  oI enclosed
c
• In order to have a B field around a loop, there must be
current punching through the loop.

• The line integral is around any closed contour bounding an

open surface S.
 
• Ienc is current through S: Ienc  
S
J dA
05/07/2024 PHY1261 20
 Biot-Savart vs. Ampere
general
Biot-Savart 
  0 I d s  rˆ current source
Law B
4  r 2
ex: finite wire
wire loop

symmetric
Ampere’s   current source
law  B  d s   0 I enc ex: infinite wire
infinite current sheet

05/07/2024 PHY1261 21
 Applying Ampere’s Law
1. Identify regions in which to calculate B field
Get B direction by right hand rule
2. Choose Amperian Loops S: Symmetry B
is 0 or constant onthe loop!

3. Calculate B  dl

4. Calculate current enclosed by loop S
5. Apply Ampere’s Law to solve for B
 
05/07/2024
c
B.d l  oI en closed
PHY1261 22
Example 1: Field due to long straight thin wire (magnitude)

I
B
 
r
 B  d s  B  ds  B  2 r 
  0 I enc   0 I
0 I
 B
2 r
 0 I
In vector form B  counterclo ckwise
2r
05/07/2024 PHY1261 23
 Example 2: Field of a tightly wound toroid

o NI
B , ( a  r  b)
2 r
B  0, r  a
B  0, r  b
If b-a < r then B varies little – principle of fusion reactors

05/07/2024 PHY1261 24
 Example 3: Infinite thick Wire

I A cylindrical conductor
has radius R and a
uniform current density
with total current I

Find B everywhere

Two regions:
(1) outside wire (r ≥ R)
(2) inside wire (r < R)
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 Example: Infinite Wire

I
B
I

Amperian Loop:
B is Constant & Parallel
05/07/2024 PHY1261
I Penetrates 26
 Example 3: Infinite thick Wire

Region 1: Outside wire (r ≥ R)

Cylindrical symmetry 
Amperian Circle
B-field counterclockwise

 
 B  d s  B  ds  B  2 r 
  0 I enc   0 I
 0 I
B counterclo ckwise
05/07/2024 PHY1261
2r 27
 Example 3: Infinite thick Wire

Region 2: Inside wire (r < R)

 
 B  d s  B  ds  B  2 r  2
 r 
  0 I enc   0 I  2 
R 
  0 Ir
B counterclo ckwise
2R 2

I
Could also say: J  
A 
I
R 2
; I enc  JAenc 

I
R 2
 
 r 2

05/07/2024 PHY1261 28
 Example 3: Infinite thick Wire

 0 Ir 0 I
Bin  Bout 
2R 2 2r

05/07/2024 PHY1261 29
 Exercise: Non-Uniform Cylindrical Wire

I A cylindrical conductor
has radius R and a non-
uniform current density
with total current:
 R
J  J0
r
Find B everywhere

05/07/2024 PHY1261 30
 Example 4: Magnetic field of a solenoid

In general, one can show that for points on the central axis
(take it to be the x-axis) of a single circular loop, a circulating
current [i] produces a magnetic field:

o IR 2
Bx 

2 x2  R2 
3/ 2

0 
  I A R  B 2
But 2 R 3 at the center of the loop.
Therefore a loop is a source of magnetic field having the same
direction as the magnetic dipole
05/07/2024 moment.
PHY1261 31
 Example 4: Magnetic field of a solenoid
There is a similarity between the electric field of the electric dipole and
the magnetic field of a current loop. A circular loop with current
can be compared to a magnetic dipole. It acts like a magnet.
Magnetic dipole can be viewed as a pair of magnetic charges by
analogy with electric dipole.

I S

• When a magnetic dipole

is placed in an external N
magnetic field, it S B
experiences a torque
05/07/2024 PHY1261 32
 Example 4: Magnetic field of a solenoid
 0i
A complete loop of wire has a magnetic field at its center: B 
2R

The field can be made stronger by adding more loops.

A many turn coil of wire with current is called a solenoid.

tightly wound loosely wound

The field near the wires is still circular, but farther
away the fields blend into a nearly constant field
down the axis.
05/07/2024 PHY1261 33
 Example 4: Magnetic field of a solenoid

Consider a tightly wound solenoid.

The actual field looks more like
this:
Compare with electric field in a
capacitor. Like a capacitor, the field
is uniform inside (except near the
ends), but the direction of the field
is different.
Approximate that the field is constant inside
and zero outside (just like capacitor).
Characterize the windings in terms of number
of turns per unit length, n. Each turn
carries current i, so total current over length
h is inh.
only section that has non-zero
contribution

05/07/2024 PHY1261 34
 Example 4: Magnetic field of a solenoid

Using Ampere’s law: Think!

 
B  d s along sides 2 and 4

B  0 along side 3
 
 B  d s =  B  d s   B  d s   B  d s   B  d s
1 2 3 4

 Bl  0  0  0
I enc  nlI n: turn density
 
 B  d s  Bl  0 nlI
 0 nlI
N / L : # turns/unit lengthPHY1261 B 
n  05/07/2024   0 nI
l 35
 Differential form of Ampere’s Law

Obtain enclosed current as integral of current density

 B.d   I o encl  o  j.d S

S
B
Apply Stokes’ theorem
j
 B.d     B.dS    j.dS
S
o
S
dI  j.dS

dℓ
Integration surface is arbitrary
  B  o j S

Must be true point wise

05/07/2024 PHY1261 36
 8.5. The Magnetic Force Between
Two Parallel Conductors

• When a current-carrying
conductor is placed in an external
magnetic field B, the magnetic
force on the conductor is given by:
d F  Id l  B
• Consider two parallel wires of
equal length carrying a steady
current:
– The two wires will exert
magnetic forces on each other.
– Wire 1 will exert a magnetic
force on wire 2; wire 2 will
05/07/2024 exert a magnetic force on wire
PHY1261 37
1.
 8.5. The Magnetic Force Between
Two Parallel Conductors
• The wires are separated by distance a and carry
currents I1 and I2 in the same direction.
• Wire 2, carrying current I2, sets up a magnetic
field B2 at the position of wire 1.
- The direction of the
magnetic field B2 is
perpendicular to the wire.
-
- Angle q between L and B2
is 90.

F1  F 2 on1  I1 l  B 2
05/07/2024 PHY1261 38
 8.5. The Magnetic Force Between
Two Parallel Conductors
• F1 = F2 on 1 = I1·L·B2·sin q
F1 = F2 on 1 = I1·L·B2
• Biot-Savart law for the magnetic field B2:
μ o  I2
B2 
2π a
• Substituting:
 μ o  I2 
F1  F2 on1  I1  L  B2  I1  L   
2πa 
L  μ o  I1  I2
F1  F2 on1 
2π a
05/07/2024 PHY1261 39
 8.5. The Magnetic Force Between
Two Parallel Conductors
• Rewriting in terms of the force per unit length:

F μ o  I1  I2

L 2πa
• The direction of F1 is downward and is determined
using the right hand rule (fingers of right hand in
direction of current I; palm facing in the direction of
B; thumb points down in the direction of F 1)
• The magnetic force that wire 1 exerts on wire 2 (F 1 on
2) is equal in magnitude to and opposite in direction
to F1 (F2 on 1).

05/07/2024 PHY1261 40
 8.5. The Magnetic Force Between
Two Parallel Conductors
• Wire 1 and wire 2 will attract each other.
• When the currents are in opposite directions, the magnetic
forces again equal in magnitude but are opposite in direction
and the wires repel each other.
• Conclusions: parallel conductors carrying currents in the
same direction attract each other; parallel conductors
carrying currents in opposite directions repel each other.

05/07/2024 PHY1261 41
 DEFINITION OF AMPERE
• The force between two parallel wires each carrying a current
is used to define the ampere (A):

• If I1 = I2 = 1 A and a = 1 m, the numerical value of 2 x 10-7

N/m is obtained from: F μ o  I1  I2

L 2πa
• Define Ampere as the quantity of current that
produces a force per unit length of 2 x 10 -7 N/m
for separation of 1 m

0 Fa (2  10 7 N/m)(1m)
   2  10 7
N/A 2
   4  10 7
N/A 2

2 lI1 I1
0
(1A 2 )

05/07/2024 PHY1261 42
 Earth’s Magnetic Field

• Scientists think that the Earth’s magnetic field is made by

the movement of electric charges in the Earth’s core.
• In the earth, electrical currents run through the molten iron
core. Friction within the molten core causes electrons
knocking off iron atoms. The electrical currents within the
earth cause earth to act like a gigantic electromagnetic
generator.
• This is called the Dynamo Theory of magnetic field
generation.

• Earth’s magnetic field plays a part in making auroras. An

aurora is formed when charged particles from the sun hit
oxygen and nitrogen atoms in the air.
05/07/2024 PHY1261 43
 8.6 Magnetic materials

1. Magnetization
• Magnetization refers to the process of converting a
non-magnetic material into a Magnetic material.
Nonmagnetic materials include most metals and
alloys, polymers, wood, and glass.

• The Magnetic moment in a material originates from

the orbital motion and spinning motion of electrons
in an atom.

05/07/2024 PHY1261 44
 2. Current Loops (Magnetic Dipoles) in Atoms
Consider electron moving with
velocity v in a circular Bohr orbit of l
radius r. It produces a current
r
e e e-
i  L v
T 2
where T is the orbital period of the
electron.

The current loop produces a magnetic field, with a

moment e 2 1
l  iA  r  er
2

2 2

05/07/2024 PHY1261 45
 2. Current Loops (Magnetic Dipoles) in Atoms

• In the absence of an applied magnetic field,

the infinitesimal magnetic dipoles in most
materials are randomly oriented, giving a net
macroscopic magnetization of zero.
• When an external magnetic field is applied, the
magnetic dipoles have a tendency to align
themselves with the applied magnetic field,
giving to the atom a net magnetic dipole
moment. We call induced dipole moments.

05/07/2024 PHY1261 46
 3. Magnetized Materials

• A material is said to be magnetized when induced

magnetic dipoles are present.
• The presence of the induced magnetic dipoles
modifies the magnetic field both inside and
outside of the magnetized material.
• Most materials lose their magnetization when the
external magnetic field is removed.
• A material that remains magnetized in the absence
of an applied magnetic field is called a permanent
magnet.

05/07/2024 PHY1261 47
 3. Magnetized Materials

• The effect of an applied electric field on a magnetic

material is to create a net magnetic dipole moment
per unit volume M.
• The dipole moment distribution sets up induced
secondary fields:
   Field due to
induced magnetic
B  B0  B induced dipoles

Total field Field in free space

due to sources

05/07/2024 PHY1261 48
 3. Magnetized Materials

The effective magnetic field B inside a magnetic

material is

where χ is called magnetic susceptibility.

It is also possible to define the magnetic permeability

of a material as μ = μ0(1 + χ).

The quantity μr = 1 + χ is called relative permeability.

05/07/2024 PHY1261 49
 4. Diamagnetic Materials

• In the absence of applied magnetic field, each

atom has net zero magnetic dipole moment.
• When an external magnetic field is applied, the
induced magnetic dipole moments align
themselves opposite to the applied field.
• Thus, the magnetic field inside the material is less
than the externally applied field: the magnetic
susceptibility is small and negative.
• Examples: water, protein, fat

05/07/2024 PHY1261 50
 4. Diamagnetic Materials

• Usually, diamagnetism is a very miniscule effect in natural

materials.
• Diamagnetism can be a big effect in superconductors and in
artificial materials.
• Diamagnetic materials are repelled from either pole of a
magnet.
05/07/2024 PHY1261 51
 5. Paramagnetic Materials

• In the absence of applied magnetic field, each

atom has net non-zero (but weak) magnetic dipole
moment. These magnetic dipoles moments are
randomly oriented so that the net macroscopic
magnetization is zero.
• In the presence of an applied magnetic field, the
magnetic dipoles align themselves with the
applied field so that the magnetic field inside the
material is higher than the external. Usually,
paramagnetism is a very miniscule effect in
natural materials. Thus the magnetic susceptibility
of paramagnetic materials is small and positive.
05/07/2024 PHY1261 52
 5. Paramagnetic Materials

• Paramagnetic materials are (weakly) attracted to

either pole of a magnet.
• See examples of paramagnetic materials in slide 65.

05/07/2024 PHY1261 53
 6. Ferromagnetic Materials

• Ferromagnetic materials include iron, nickel and

cobalt and compounds containing these elements.
• In the absence of applied magnetic field, each
atom has very strong magnetic dipole moments
due to uncompensated electron spins.
• Regions of many atoms with aligned dipole
moments called domains form.
• In the absence of applied magnetic field, the
domains are randomly oriented so that the net
macroscopic magnetization is zero.

05/07/2024 PHY1261 54
 6. FERROMAGNETISM

c18f07
mutual alignment of
atomic dipoles even in
the absence of an
external magnetic field.

• In the presence of an applied magnetic field, the domains

align themselves with the applied field. The effect is a very
strong one and their susceptibility is very high.
• Ferromagnetic materials are strongly attracted to either
pole of a magnet. Examples in next slide.
05/07/2024 PHY1261 55
 Material Type Relative permeability

Bismuth Diamagnetic 0.99983

Silver Diamagnetic 0.99998

Copper Diamagnetic 0.999991

Lead Diamagnetic 0.999983

Water Diamagnetic 0.999991

Vacuum Nonmagnetic 1

Air Paramagnetic 1.0000004

Aluminum Paramagnetic 1.00002

Palladium Ferromagnetic 1.0008

Cobalt Ferromagnetic 250

Nickel Ferromagnetic 600

Mild Steel (0.2 C) Ferromagnetic 2,000

Iron (0.2 impurity) Ferromagnetic 5,000

Silicon Iron Ferromagnetic 7,000

Mumetal Ferromagnetic 100,000

Purified iron (0.05 impurity) Ferromagnetic 200,000

Supermalloy
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PHY1261 1,000,000 56
 8.7 Kinds of magnets
Temporary Magnets Permanent Magnets

• Made from materials that • Difficult to magnetize

are easy to magnetize, but and keep their magnetic
lose their magnetism properties longer than
easily. temporary magnets.
• Soft iron is iron that has • Some permanent magnets
not been mixed with any are made with alnico-an
other materials and can be alloy made up of
made into temporary aluminum, nickel, cobalt,
magnets and iron.
• The paper clip and nail in
the mini-lab were
temporary magnets.
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