Understanding Data and

Ways to Systematically
Collect Data

Unit V
Writing the Research
Methodology
 Learning Objective
 To know the steps in writing
a research methodology
Key Understanding
 Knowledge of the steps in writing a
research methodology is important in
formulating an effective research method.

Key Question
 What are the steps in writing a research
methodology?
 Methodology
Remember to do the following when writing
your Methodology:
 Explain what methods you intend to use
when researching and developing your
report.
 Use a descriptive writing approach. It is
important to explain what research methods
you used to collect your information.
 Methodology
 Do not include your questionnaires,
interview transcripts, etc. - these go in the
appendices.
 Methodology
In the methodology section, there are six
parts to be addressed:
1. Research Design
2. Population and Sampling
3. Instrumentation
4. Data Gathering Procedure
5. Data Analysis
6. Methodological Limitations
 Methodology
1. Research Design
• The purpose of the study: Exploratory, Descriptive
or Explanatory

• Methods employed in the study may be qualitative,

quantitative, or a mixture of both.
If quantitative, state what method (e.g. survey,
experimental).
If qualitative, also state whether case study, key
informant interview, participant observation,
document review, etc.
 Qualitative Research Designs

1. Case Study
2. Ethnography
3. Historical Study
4. Phenomenology
5. Grounded Theory
6. Content Analysis
 Methodology
In the methodology section, there are six
parts to be addressed:
1. Research Design
2. Population and Sampling
2. Population and Sampling
• Describes the group from which the sample is drawn
and/or how the sample or subjects were drawn.
• What sampling method – probability or non-probability?
And what sampling techniques were used?
• Techniques under probability method are simple
random, systematic, stratified, cluster, or multi-stage
cluster sampling.
• Under non-probability method, the techniques are
convenience, accidental, snowball, chain-referral,
purposive, or quota sampling.
• Be sure to include the criteria you intend to use to
define your sample or subjects.
 Different
Sampling
Procedures
 Learning Objective
 To identify, describe, and give
examples of different sampling
procedures
Key Understanding
 Knowledge of the different sampling
procedures is crucial in identifying
appropriate sampling method for a chosen
research topic.
Key Question
 What are the different sampling procedures?
 SAMPLING

 In research, sampling is a word that refers to your

method or process of selecting respondents or
people to answer questions meant to yield data for a
research study.
 The chosen ones constitute the sample through which
you will derive facts and evidence to support the claims
or conclusions propounded by your research problem.
 The bigger group from where you choose the sample is
called population, and sampling frame is the term
used to mean the list of the members of such
population from where you will get the sample. (Paris
2013)
• POPULATION is the totality of individuals or objects that are
the focus of the study.
• TARGET POPULATION is the population used by the
researcher in generalizing the conclusion of the study.
• SAMPLING FRAME lists all individuals or objects included in
the target population.
• Drawn from the sampling frame, SAMPLE is a subset of the
population chosen to participate in a study. Those chosen are
known as the subjects or RESPONDENTS of the study.
• SAMPLE SIZE is the number of elements in the sample set.
• RESPONSE RATE is determined by dividing the number of
usable responses by the total number of questionnaires
fielded.
• Response rate may be increased by making follow-up after
questionnaires are sent.
• CENSUS is the systematic recording of
information of each member of a population.
• SAMPLING TECHNIQUE is the process of
selecting samples from a target population.
 Types of Sampling

1. Probability Sampling or Unbiased Sampling

2. Non-Probability Sampling
 Probability Sampling or
Unbiased Sampling
 Probability sampling involves all members listed
in the sampling frame representing a certain
population focused on by your study. An equal
chance of participation in the sampling or
selection process is given to every member listed
in the sampling frame.
 By means of this unbiased sampling, you are able
to obtain a sample that is capable of representing
the population under study or of showing strong
similarities in characteristics with the members of
the population.
 Probability Sampling or
Unbiased Sampling
 A sampling error crops up if the selection does
not take place in the way it is planned. Such
sampling error is manifested by strong
dissimilarity between the sample and the ones
listed in the sampling frame.
 How numerous the sampling errors are depends
on the size of the sample. The smaller the
sample is, the bigger the number of sampling
errors. Thus, choose to have a bigger sample of
respondents to avoid sampling errors.
SAMPLING BIAS
• Getting responses only from those who are
interested or those who are available is one of
the causes of sampling bias.
• Overrepresentation or underrepresentation can
also result to sampling bias.
• SAMPLING ERROR results when there is
sampling bias or samples taken are not
representative of the target population.
Normally, the problem may be corrected by
increasing the sample size.
• Mistakes in data encoding may also lead to
error when the data are processed.
 Probability Sampling or
Unbiased Sampling
 For a study in the field of social sciences requiring
an in-depth investigation of something such as one
involving the national government, the right sample
size ranges from 1,000 to 1,500 or up to 2,500.
 On the other hand, hundreds, not thousands, of
respondents suffice for a study about any local
government unit. (Suter 2012; Emmel 2013)
 Types of Probability Sampling

1. Simple Random Sampling

2. Systematic Sampling
3. Stratified Sampling
4. Cluster Sampling
 Types of Probability Sampling

1. Simple Random Sampling

 It is the best type of probability sampling
through which you can choose sample from a
population.

 Using a pure-chance selection, you assure

every member the same opportunity to be in
the sample.
 Types of Probability Sampling

1. Simple Random Sampling

 Here, the only basis of including or excluding a member
is by chance or opportunity, not by any occurrence
accounted for by cause-effect relationships.
 Simple random sampling happens through any of these
two methods: (Burns 2012)
a) Have a list of all members of the population; write
each name on a card, and choose cards through a
pure-chance selection.
b) Have a list of all members; give a number to member
and then use randomized or unordered numbers in
selecting names from the list.
 Types of Probability Sampling
2. Systematic Sampling
 For this kind of probability sampling, chance and
system are the ones to determine who should
compose the sample.
 For instance, if you want to have a sample of 150,
you may select a set of numbers like 1 to 15, and
out of a list of 1,500 students, take every 15th
name on the list until you complete the total
number of respondents to constitute your sample.
 Types of Probability Sampling
3. Stratified Sampling

 The group comprising the sample is chosen in

a way that such group is liable to
subdivision during the data analysis stage.
 A study needing group-by-group analysis
finds stratified sampling the right probability
sampling to use.
 Types of Probability Sampling
4. Cluster Sampling
 This is a probability sampling that makes
you isolate a set of persons instead of
individual members to serve as sample
members.
 For example, if you want to have a sample
of 120 out of 1,000 students, you can
randomly select three sections with 40
students each to constitute the sample.
 Non-Probability Sampling
 Non-probability sampling disregards random
selection of subjects. The subjects are chosen
based on their availability or the purpose of
the study, and in some cases, on the sole
discretion of the researcher.
 This is not a scientific way of selecting
respondents. Neither does it offer a valid or an
objective way of detecting sampling errors.
(Edmond 2013)
Types of Non-Probability Sampling

1. Quota Sampling
2. Voluntary Sampling
3. Purposive or Judgmental Sampling
4. Availability Sampling
5. Snowball Sampling
 Types of Non-Probability Sampling
1. Quota Sampling
 You resort to quota sampling when you think you
know the characteristics of the target population
very well.
 In this case, you tend to choose sample members
possessing or indicating the characteristics of the
target population.
 Using a quota or a specific set of persons whom you
believe to have the characteristics of the target
population involved in the study is your way of
showing that the sample you have chosen closely
represents the target population as regards such
characteristics.
 Types of Non-Probability Sampling

2. Voluntary Sampling

 Since the subjects you expect to participate

in the sample selection are the ones
volunteering to constitute the sample, there
is no need for you to do any selection
process.
 Types of Non-Probability Sampling

3. Purposive or Judgmental Sampling

 You choose people whom you are sure

could correspond to the objectives of
your study, like selecting those with rich
experience or interest in your study.
 Types of Non-Probability Sampling

4. Availability Sampling
 The willingness of a person as your subject to
interact with you counts a lot in this non-
probability sampling method.
 If during the data-collection time, you
encounter people walking on a school
campus, along corridors, and along the park
or employees lining up at an office, and these
people show willingness to respond to your
questions, then you automatically consider
them as your respondents .
 Types of Non-Probability Sampling
5. Snowball Sampling
 Similar to snow expanding widely or rolling rapidly,
this sampling method does not give a specific set
of samples. This is true for a study involving
unspecified group of people.
 Dealing with varied groups of people such as
street children, mendicants, drug dependents, call
center workers, informal settlers, street vendors, and
the like is possible in this kind of non-probability
sampling.
 Free to obtain data from any group just like snow
freely expanding and accumulating at a certain place,
you tend to increase the number of people you want
to form the sample of your study. (Harding 2013)
 Types of Sampling

1. Probability Sampling or Unbiased Sampling

2. Non-Probability Sampling
 Types of Probability Sampling

1. Simple Random Sampling

2. Systematic Sampling
3. Stratified Sampling
4. Cluster Sampling
Types of Non-Probability Sampling

1. Quota Sampling
2. Voluntary Sampling
3. Purposive or Judgmental Sampling
4. Availability Sampling
5. Snowball Sampling
POST ASSESSMENT 4.1
Probability Sampling or
Non-Probability Sampling
February 29, 2024
Write PS if the sentence talks about
probability sampling; otherwise write NP.

1. Checking every 10th

student in the list
2. Interviewing some persons
you meet on the campus
3. Dividing 100 persons into
groups
Write PS if the sentence talks about
probability sampling; otherwise write NP.

4. Choosing subjects behaving

like the majority members
5. Choosing a group of
subjects among several groups
6. Choosing subjects capable
of helping you meet the aim of
your study
Write PS if the sentence talks about
probability sampling; otherwise write NP.

7. Choosing samples by
chance but through an
organizational pattern
8. Letting all members in
the population join the
selection process
Write PS if the sentence talks about
probability sampling; otherwise write NP.

9. Having people willing to

be chosen as respondents
10. Matching people's
traits with the population
members' traits.
Write PS if the sentence talks about
probability sampling; otherwise write NP.

1. Checking every 10th

student in the list
PS
Systematic Sampling
Write PS if the sentence talks about
probability sampling; otherwise write NP.

2. Interviewing some persons

you meet on the campus
NP
Availability Sampling
Write PS if the sentence talks about
probability sampling; otherwise write NP.

3. Dividing 100 persons into

groups
PS
Cluster Sampling
Write PS if the sentence talks about
probability sampling; otherwise write NP.

4. Choosing subjects behaving

like the majority members
NP
Quota Sampling
Write PS if the sentence talks about
probability sampling; otherwise write NP.

5. Choosing a group of
subjects among several groups
NP
Snowball Sampling
Write PS if the sentence talks about
probability sampling; otherwise write NP.

6. Choosing subjects capable

of helping you meet the aim of
your study
NP
Purposive Sampling
Write PS if the sentence talks about
probability sampling; otherwise write NP.

7. Choosing samples by
chance but through an
organizational pattern
PS
Systematic Sampling
Write PS if the sentence talks about
probability sampling; otherwise write NP.

8. Letting all members in the

population join the selection
process
PS
Simple Random Sampling
Write PS if the sentence talks about
probability sampling; otherwise write NP.

9. Having people willing to

be chosen as respondents
NP
Voluntary Sampling
Write PS if the sentence talks about
probability sampling; otherwise write NP.

10. Matching people's

traits with the population
members' traits
NP
Quota Sampling
1. Checking every 10th student in the list. PS
2. Interviewing some persons you meet on the campus. NP
3. Dividing 100 persons into groups. PS
4. Choosing subjects behaving like the majority members.
NP
5. Choosing a group of subjects among several groups. NP
6. Choosing subjects capable of helping you meet the aim
of your study. NP
7. Choosing samples by chance but through an
organizational pattern. PS
8. Letting all members in the population join the selection
process. PS
9. Having people willing to be chosen as respondents. NP
10. Matching people's traits with the population members'
traits. NP
 Methodology
In the methodology section, there are six
parts to be addressed:
1. Research Design
2. Population and Sampling
3. Instrumentation
3. Instrumentation
• Describes the kind of instrument you will use for gathering
data in the study. Is it an interview schedule (for a survey), a
questionnaire, an interview guide, observation guide, FGD
guide or case study guide?
• How did you construct the instrument?
• Did you pretest the instrument? If yes, state with whom,
how and what the results were in general especially in
terms of changes made in the instrument.
• If you did not, say with whom, how & when you would do it.
• Indicate the measures of validity (face validity, criterion
validity, construct validity, internal or external validity).
• Validity tells us how successful and accurately the
measuring instrument measures the phenomenon;
reliability refers to the consistency of the measurement.
 Methodology
In the methodology section, there are six
parts to be addressed:
1. Research Design
2. Population and Sampling
3. Instrumentation
4. Data Gathering Procedure
4. Data Gathering Procedure
 Explains the details entailed in data
gathering, from how you intend to
contact the subjects to how the method
(e.g. survey, interview, or observation)
will be done.

 Includes what ethical procedures you will

observe during the conduct of research.
 Methodology
In the methodology section, there are six
parts to be addressed:
1. Research Design
2. Population and Sampling
3. Instrumentation
4. Data Gathering Procedure
5. Data Analysis
5. Data Analysis
 Describes how you will process and
analyze (including statistical
designs/tests) the data you will obtain in
the study.

 For complicated statistical designs for

quantitative studies, you must include a
step-by-step description.
5. Data Analysis
 In analyzing data, you go through CODING
and COLLATING.
 Coding is your act of using symbols like letters
or words to represent arbitrary or subjective
data (emotions, opinions, attitudes) to ensure
secrecy or privacy of data.
 Collating, on the other hand, is your way of
bringing together the coded data. Giving the
data an orderly appearance is putting them in
a graph, specifically a table of responses.
5. Data Analysis
 The term “data matrix” is also used to name
this table of responses that consists of table of
cases and their associated variables.
2 Types
 Profile Matrix shows the measurements of
variables or factors for a set of cases or
respondents.
 Proximity Matrix indicates measurements of
similarities (Similarity Matrix) and differences
(Dissimilarity Matrix) between items.
 Methodology
In the methodology section, there are six
parts to be addressed:
1. Research Design
2. Population and Sampling
3. Instrumentation
4. Data Gathering Procedure
5. Data Analysis
6. Methodological Limitations
6. Methodological Limitations
 This pertains to the weaknesses of the
study resulting from the use of a particular
methodology,
including sampling, instrument
construction or compromises to internal and
external validity.
 If we depend on secondary statistics, we
have no control over how they were
gathered (validity is compromised).
 Methodology
Justification
• Why and how did you choose the
targeted population/sample?
• Why did you choose the particular
method?
• Is the methodology appropriate to your
field of study?
• Is the methodology appropriate to the
objectives of the study?
73
 Methodology

• Methods affect results

• Methods affect validity and
reliability
• Methods affect conclusions

74
 Methods Affect Results
• Research method affects:
– data the researcher records about the
phenomenon
– the sorts of phenomena that can be studied
– the sorts of understanding of the
phenomenon that the researcher is likely to
arrive at
– the sorts of knowledge claims they will be
able to sustain
(Guba & Lincoln 1994 in Nandhakumar 2003)
 Methodology
• Ultimately, your methodology section(s)
should
– Define and explain your method, your
theoretical approach, naming your
instrument (e.g. Case study,
interview, etc.)
– Show links between your method and
others
 Methodology
• Ultimately, your methodology section(s)
should
– Justify your choice of methods
– Report what you plan to do
– Show how you will select and analyse
the data and how you will document it
– Say what you expect to find
 Organising the
methodology section
• How will you logically organise the
information in this section?
• How will you organise your text in each
section?
• Will you organise the methods around the
questions? Or around the methodological
type?
Questions your methodology section
should answer
• Why will the data be admissible?
• Why is your choice of measuring
instrument appropriate to your context / to
the data you are aiming to retrieve?
• By what criteria will you measure the
validity of your measuring instruments?
• How do we know that your method will
yield reliable data?
 Valid, reliable information
“Sometimes there is universal agreement that a
particular instrument provides a valid instrument
for measuring a particular characteristic. We
could all agree that a ruler measures length, a
thermometer measures temperature, and a
barometer measures air pressure. But whenever
we do not have such universal agreement, we
must provide evidence that an instrument we are
using has validity for our purpose” (Leedy and
Ormrod, 2005: 92).