STRUCTURE OF MATTER

GENERAL CLASSES
&
PRINCIPLES OF ADHESION

PRESENTED BY-
Guided by ARYA KRISHNAN
Dr Lavanya 1st year PG
Assistant professor
DEPARTMENT OF PROSTHODONTCS
DEPARTMENT OF PROSTHODONTCS
CONENTS
 Introduction
 Change of state
 Kinetic energy
 Interatomic bonding
 Thermal energy
 Crystalline structure
 Non crystalline structure
 Diffusion
 Metals
 Ceramics
 Polymers
 Adhesion & bonding
 Conclusion
Introduction

 All matter was composed of indivisible particles called

átomos (á = “un”; tomos = “to cut”; meaning “uncuttable”),
which is the origin of the name atom
 Two or more atoms can form an electrically neutral entity
called a molecule

 Atoms & Molecules are held together by

“ATOMIC INTERACTIONS
KINETIC ENERGY

If each molecule attains a kinetic energy that is higher than the attraction
between these molecules, they appear in the vapor form. As the
surrounding temperature decreases, the level of kinetic energy within
individual molecules decreases and the attraction between them becomes
more prominent, so that they condense to a liquid form.

Further cooling yields a solid called ice, where the kinetic energy is low
that the molecules are immobilized by the attraction between them.
 Change of State
Melting Temp Heat of Vaporization
.
 SOLID LIQUID GAS

 A change from the solid to the liquid state will require additional energy—
kinetic energy— to break loose from the force of attraction. This additional
energy is called the latent heat of fusion. The temperature at which this
change occurs is known as the melting temperature or fusion temperature.
 energy is needed to transform the liquid to vapor, and this quantity of
energy is known as the heat of vaporization.
 It is possible for some solids to change directly to a vapor by a process
called sublimation as seen in dry ice; this, however, has no practical
importance as far as dental materials are concerned low
 Interatomic
Bonding

Primary Secondary

Covalent Van der Waals Hydrogen

Metallic Bonds Ionic Bonds
Bonds Forces Bonds
Primary Bond
A bond that forms between atoms involves the exchanging or
sharing of electrons.
Secondary Bond
A bond that involves attraction between molecules. Unlike primary
bonding, there is no transfer or sharing of electrons.
 Interatomic Primary Bonding:
Interatomic primary bonding may be of three different types:

1. Ionic Bonds:
 Result from the electrostatic attraction of two atom in which one atom
transfer an electron to other atom
 The classic example is sodium chloride (Na+Cl-).
 In dentistry, ionic bonding exists in certain crystalline phases of some
dental materials, such as gypsum and phosphate based cement .
 2. Covalent Bonds:
 In many chemical compounds, two valence electrons shared by adjacent
atoms.
 The hydrogen molecule H2, is an example of covalent bonding.
 Covalent bonding occur in many organic compounds, such as dental resin.
 3. Metallic Bonds:
 It is the attraction force between positive metal ions and the
delocalized (freely moving) electrons, gathered in an electron
cloud.
 These free electrons are responsible for the high electric and
thermal conductivities of metals also for their ability to deform
plastically.
 The electrostatic attraction between the electron cloud and the
positive ions in the lattice provides the force that bonds the metal
atoms together as a solid.
 Found only in metals.
 Interatomic secondary Bonding:
 In contrast with primary bonds, secondary bonds don’t share
electrons.

 Instead, charge variations among molecules or atomic groups

induce polar forces that attract the molecules.
 1. Hydrogen Bonding:
The hydrogen bond is a special case of dipole
attraction of polar compounds.
 Eg: water molecule . Attached to the oxygen atom are
two hydrogen atoms. These bonds are covalent. As a
consequence, the protons of the hydrogen atoms
pointing away from the oxygen atom are not shielded
efficiently by the electrons. They become positively
charged.
 On the opposite side of the water molecule, the
electrons that fill the outer shell of the oxygen provide
a negative charge. The positive hydrogen nucleus is
attracted to the unshared electrons of neighboring
water molecules. This type of bond is called a hydrogen
bridge.
 Polarity of this nature is important in accounting for
the intermolecular reactions in many organic
compounds— for example, the sorption of water by
synthetic dental resins
2. Van der Waals Forces:
 Van der Waals Forces form the basis of a dipole attraction.

 In the case of polar molecules, dipoles are induced by an unequal sharing of

electrons . In the case of nonpolar molecules, random movement of electrons within
the molecule creates fluctuating dipoles
 Dipoles generated within these molecules will attract other similar dipoles. Such
interatomic forces are quite weak compared with the primary bonds.
 A fluctuating dipole is thus created that will attract other similar dipoles. Such
interatomic forces are quite weak .
 Interatomic Bond Distance & Bonding
Energy
 Bond Distance : Limiting factor which prevents atoms / molecules from
approaching each other too closely
 If Distance reduces – Repulsion
 If Distance increases – Attraction
 If forces of Attraction increases – Interatomic space
decreases
 Bonding Energy: Energy can be defined as a force integrated over a
distance
 Interatomic energy

 In contrast with the resultant force, the bond

energy can be treated as the energy needed
to keep two atoms apart. Initially, the bond
energy decreases gradually as two atoms
come closer together.
 As the resultant attractive force passes the
peak and begins to decline rapidly, the bond
energy also decreases steeply .
 The bond energy reaches a minimum when
the resultant force becomes zero. Thereafter,
the energy increases rapidly because the
resultant force becomes repulsive and
increases rapidly with little change in
interatomic distance. The minimum energy
corresponds to the condition of equilibrium
and defines the equilibrium interatomic
distance.
 Thermal Energy
 KE of atoms/molecules at a given temp.
atoms are in constant state of vibration
 The atoms in a crystal at temperatures
above absolute zero are in a constant
state of vibration, and the average
amplitude is dependent on the
temperature
 If higher the temp. greater the amplitude so,
greater is the KE/ Internal Energy.
 Gross effect is expansion – k/as Thermal
Expansion
 Crystalline Structure
 Atoms are bonded to each other by either primary or secondary
forces. In the solid state, they combine in a manner that ensures
minimal internal energy. The result is that they form a regularly
spaced configuration known as a space lattice or crystal.
 A space lattice can be defined as any arrangement of atom in space
in which every atom is situated similarly to every other atom. Space
lattices may be the result of primary or secondary bonds.
 All dental amalgams, cast alloys, wrought metals, gold foil are
crystalline. Some pure ceramics, such as aluminia and zirconia core
ceramics, are entirely crystalline
 Body centered cubic

 In the body-centered cubic (BCC)

array,
 All angles are 90 degrees and all
atoms are equidistant from one
another in the horizontal and vertical
directions. Metallic atoms are
located at the corners of the unit
cell, and one atom is at the center of
the unit cell
 Eg. iron and common for many iron
alloys
 The face-centered cubic
 This array has 90- degree
angles and atomic centers that
are equidistant horizontally
and vertically, but atoms are
located in the centers of the
faces with no atom in the
center of the unit cell
 Eg Most pure metals and
alloys of gold, palladium,
cobalt, and nickel
Simple cube face centered orthorhombic Body centered orthorhombic

Simple triclinic Simple monoclinic Base centered monoclinic

Noncrystalline Solids and their Structures:
 Structures other than crystalline forms can occur in the solid state.
 For example, waxes may solidify as amorphous materials so that the
molecules are distributed at random.
 Glass – its atoms tends to develop a short order instead of long
range order (Crystalline Structure)

 A resin based composite consists of resin matrix, filler particles and

an organic coupling agent that bond the filler particles to the resin
matrix. In some cases, the filler particles are made from radiopaque
glasses that are noncrystalline.
 Other ceramics, such as porcelains, consists of noncrystalline glass
matrix and crystalline inclusions that provide desired properties,
including color, opacity, and increase in thermal expansion
coefficients, radiopacity, strength, fracture toughness .
 Composites have a noncrystalline matrix and may or may not contain
crystalline filler particles.
 The structural arrangements of the noncrystalline solids don’t
represent such low internal energies as do crystalline arrangements
of the same atoms and molecules. Noncrystalline solids do not have
a definite melting temperature, but rather they gradually soften as the
temperature is raised .
Diffusion
 In Gases & Liquid is well-known
 Atoms/Molecules diffuse in solid state as well .

 Diffusion in Crystalline structure at room temp. is very low. At

increased temp. prop. of metals may be changed radically by
atomic diffusion
 Diffusion in Non-crystalline structure may occur at rapid rate
(b.coz of disordered structure)
Diffusion Coefficient ‘D’
 Defined as Amount of Diffusion that takes place across a given unit
area
 Glass Transition Temperature
 The temp. at which the sharp increase in coefficient of thermal
expansion, indicating increased molecular mobility is called Glass
Transition Temperature(Tg)

 Eg: polymers undergo transition from glossy to rubbery state

 It is characteristic of the particular glassy structure. Also known as

Glass Temperature

 Below the Tg :the material loss its fluid characterestics ,molecular

mobility decreased material become stiff
METALS

 Main feature of metals are having valence electron in outer

most shell ,it form positively charged ionic core to break
interatomic bond and establish new bond .this help metal to
establish the property of ductility and malleability
 Alloy: its mixture of two metal or non metal which provide
properties of both
 Its better explained by equilibrium phase diagram
 USES OF EQUILIBRIUM PHASE DIAGRAM

 Various phase present at different

composition and temperature
 Indicate solid solubility of one
element in other
 Shows the temperature range over
which solidification or liquidification
of material
 Indicate the temperature at which
different phase start to melt
Eutectic alloys

1) Definition: metals which are completely soluble in the liquid state but
either insoluble or partially soluble in the solid state.
Examples:
a) Lead and tin: used in soldering but not in dentistry.
b) Silver and copper: used in dental soldering and in amalgam which
improve amalgam properties."
Properties of eutectic alloys
1) they have a single melting point.
2) They have poor tarnish and corrosion resistance due to their
heterogonous structure (two phases system)
3) They are brittle because of the presence of insoluble phases (α and β)
that inhibit dislocation movement.
4) The strength and hardness are higher than those of constituent
(parent) metals because of the composite cored nature of the alloy."
Ceramics

 They are solid phase compounds of metallic and non metallic

elements
 These don’t have valence electron in outermost shell hence they
are poor conductors of heat and electrical current
 Even though it have metallic element lack characteristics of
metal substance hence considered as non metallic inorganic
structures
Structure of ceramic
 Composed of silica soda and lime in short range repetitive order
structure called glassy phase and melt at lower temperature
 The type of material used in dentistry to balance the
translucency and opacity of prosthesis is called glass ceramics
Mechanical properties of ceramics

 Ceramic have high ionic bond as well as repulsion of

similar charges thus restrict the slippage of ions which
makes it brittle ,can’t access tensile strength lead to
fracture
POLYMER

 A class of natural and synthetic substance composed of high

molecular weight molecules with repeating unit called
macromolecules
 Each repeating unit is mer in polymer
 Molecular weight : Si unit is Dalton or g/mol
 Chaining and crosslinking

 The formation of chemical bonds or

bridges between the linear polymer to as
cross linking
 Acrylic tooth are highly crosslinked to
improve its resistance to solvents, crazing
and surface stresses
 Copolymer structure
 Homopolymer: only one type repeating unit
 Copolymer :two or more types of mer units
 Random :no sequential order exist among the two or more units
..ABBABABAAABAAAABABBBBABAAAABABABB..
 Block :identical monomer units occur relatively long sequences
… AAAAABBBBBBBAAAABBBBBBBAAABBBAAAA…
 Graft /branched :one type of mer {B} graft onto backbone chain{A}
... AAAAAAAAAAAAAA ...
||
BB
BB
BB
Molecular organization
 Dental polymers are predominantly amorphous with little or no crystallinity
 .
PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES

Mechanical property
Plastic strain is irreversible deformation that cannot be
recovered and results in a new, permanent shape as the
result of slippage (flow) among polymer chains
 Elastic strain is reversible deformation and will be quickly
and completely recovered when the stress is eliminated, as
the result of polymer chains uncoiling and then recoiling.
 Viscoelastic strain is a combination of both elastic and
plastic deformation, but only the elastic portion is recovered
when the stress is reduced.
RHEOMETRIC PROPERTIES
 The rheometry, or flow behavior, of solid polymers involves
a combination of elastic and plastic deformation followed by
elastic recovery after the stresses are eliminated. This
combination of elastic and plastic changes is termed
viscoelasticity.
Solubility
 The longer the chains (the higher the molecular
weight), the more slowly a polymer dissolves. •
Polymers tend to absorb a solvent, swell, and
soften rather than dissolve. Any dissolution
occurs from the swollen state.
Crosslinking prevents complete chain separation and
retards dissolution; thus, highly crosslinked polymers cannot
be dissolved
Chemical stages of polymerization

 Induction
 Activation
 Propagation
 Chain transfer
 Termination
 ADHESION & BONDING
 In complete denture retention – Adhesion between Denture & Saliva &
Soft tissue
 2 substances brought into Intimate contact, one adhere to the other, this
Force is
Adhesion : In / When Unlike molecules are attracted
{Cohesion: In / When Like molecules are attracted}

 Material / film produced for Adhesion is Adhesive (fluid/semiviscous is

best)
 Material to which it is applied is Adherend
 Principles of Adhesion

 Surface Energy
 Wetting
 Contact Angle of Wetting ()
 Surface Energy

 At surface of lattice, energy is

greater (outermost atoms are not
equally attracted) increase in
energy per unit area of surface is
referred to as Surface Energy/
Tension
 Greater Surface energy –
greater capacity of Adhesion
 Wetting

 Liquid must flow easily over entire surface & adhere to

solid
 The ability of an adhesive to wet the surface of Adherend
is influenced by cleanliness of solid surface .if impurities
over the surface less surface energy less wetting such as
epoxy
 The low surface liquid permit even spread on solid with
high surface energies
 Contact Angle of Wetting
 The angle between the tangent of liquid curvature and surface of
solid
 The small contact angle indicate the adhesive force at interface
stronger than the cohesive force
 When gypsum mixed with water to make cast from impression
material ,the silicone based impression material are hydrophobic
which makes an wetting angle 90 degree .so it’s necessary to add
wetting agent/surfactant
Mechanical bonding

Strong attachment of one substance to another can also be accomplished by

mechanical means rather than by molecular attraction

ACID ETCHING

Etching of dentin surfaces primarily dissolves

Minute pores formed
Increased /improved Mechanical Retention – Decreased Marginal Leakage,
Stains, Secondary Caries & Irritation of Pulp
Internal surface of Crown / Post with cement
irregularities with Air abrasion
Bonding to tooth surface

Its complex process with following reason:

Tooth composition is not homogenous contain both organic
and inorganic components
A material can adhere to enamel may not adhere to dentine
The instrument used for tooth preparation leave a rough
surface which promote entrapment at interface
There is fluid exchange in tooth structure; the dental adhesive
should compete with water for wetting the tooth surface by
displacing it. Then too adhesive can sustain in long term in
tooth structure
 Conclusion
05/06/24

 Little knowledge is dangerous ,as rightly said ,thus a

thorough understanding of properties of dental
materials enables a professional to ensure the eventual
success of the treatment.