Semiconductor

Physics
• In a solid if the atoms are widely separated their interactions are zero.
• Every atom as the same energy level diagram.
• As the atoms come together they interact strongly.
• Positive nucleus of one atom attracts the electrons and repels the
nucleus of the adjacent tom.
• As a result instead of one energy level, N closely packed spaced
separate energy levels are formed.
• The energy levels are so closely packed that they form a virtual
continuum, called energy band.
• Consider the case of hydrogen atom. Each
hydrogen electron reside at 1s energy level
corresponding to the orbital ψ.
• As long as the separation r of two atoms A
and B is much larger than the size d of the
atoms (r >> d), the atoms do not interact
and the atomic orbitals ψA and ψB are not
affected.
• The two atoms have identical energy levels
marked E in Fig. When the two atoms come
into contact (r = d), the orbitals ψA and ψB
overlap and form molecular orbitals, where
each electron may be said to orbit around both
nuclei.
• A linear combination of these two atomic • The molecular orbital ψ+ is called the bonding
orbitals yields two types molecular orbitals, orbital and has a lower energy E′ (E′< E).
• The molecular orbital ψ- is called the
namely antibonding orbital and has a higher energyE″
(E″ > E).
ψ+ = C1 ψA + C2 ψB and ψ- = C3 ψA – C4 ψB • One molecular orbitals (bonding orbital) is of
lower energy than either of the individual
atomic orbitals and the other molecular orbital
where ψ+ and ψ- denote molecular orbitals and (antibonding orbital) is of higher energy.
• It means that the original energy level E of
C1, C2, C3 and C4 are constants. each electron is split into two energy levels
When molecular orbitals have energies similar • The transformation of a single energy level into
to their original atomic orbitals, they are two or more separate energy levels is known as
energy level splitting.
known as non-bonding orbitals.
• When two atoms come close, one
energy level splits into two energy
levels.
• When three atoms approach each other
closely, the original level splits into
three levels; four atoms produce four
levels and so on .
• N interacting atoms cause a particular
energy level to split into N levels.
• The group of energy levels resulting
from splitting is so closely spaced that
it is called an energy band.
• The individual valence electrons now
belong to the nuclei in solid instead of
individual atoms.
 Molecular Orbital Theory
• Molecular Orbital (MO) theory is a method that uses the concepts of
quantum mechanics to describe the electronic structure and properties of
different molecules.

• It provides a model for describing the energies of electrons in a molecule and

the probable location of these electrons.

• Unlike valence bond theory, which uses hybrid orbitals that are assigned to
one specific atom, MO theory uses the combination of atomic orbitals to
produce molecular orbitals.

• The mathematical process of combining atomic orbitals to generate

molecular orbitals is called the linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO).
Conditions for Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals

• The atomic orbitals combining to form molecular orbitals should have

comparable energy.

• The combining atoms must have the same symmetry around the molecular
axis; otherwise, the electron density would be sparse (small amount).

• The two atomic orbitals will combine to form molecular orbital if the overlap
is proper. Greater the extent of overlap of orbitals, greater will be the nuclear
density between the nuclei of the two atoms.
Formation of energy band structure in
semiconductor
• A semiconductor is characterized by two energy bands – conduction band and valence band separated by a
smaller energy gap. At normal temperatures, a significant number of electrons are thermally excited from
valence band to conduction band. An equal number of vacancies are produced in the valence band. These
vacancies are treated as particles having a mass equal to that of electron and carry positive charge. They are
called holes.
• The Fermi-Dirac distribution function is applicable to a semiconductor. Fig. depicts the probability function
plotted alongside the band diagram for a semiconductor.
• Because the probability of electron occupancy of the conduction band increases at temperatures greater
than 0K, the probability function is blurred and tapers off towards higher energy in the conduction band.
Similarly, the probability of hole occupancy of the valence band increases, and the probability curve is
blurred near the top edge of the valence band.
• The extent of blurring of probability curve in both the bands is equal indicating that the concentration of
electrons in the conduction band and that of holes in the valence band are equal.
• Secondly, the probability function f(E) rapidly approaches zero value with increasing E. It suggests that
the electrons in the conduction band are clustered very close to the bottom edge of the band.
• In a similar way, the holes are grouped very close to the top edge of the valence band. Therefore, it may be
approximated that electrons are located right at the bottom edge of the conduction band whereas the holes
are at the top edge of the valence band.

• The Fermi level represents the average energy of charge carriers participating in
conduction.
• Both electrons and holes participate in conduction in semiconductor and they lie
in two different bands separated by a forbidden gap.
• Therefore, it is expected that the Fermi level lies in the middle of the forbidden gap. If the Fermi level is located
elsewhere, it would mean that the number of electrons in the conduction band would be different from the number of
holes in the valence band.
Formation of Energy Bandgap

Pauli’s Exclusion Principle

No two electrons in a given
interacting system can have
same quantum state and
hence same energy.
Formation of Energy Gap in Diamond
Formation of Energy Gap in Silicon
Direct and Indirect Band Gap
Difference between Direct and Indirect
Band Gap
Optical versus Electronic Bandgap
“In materials with a large exciton binding energy, it is possible for a photon to have
just barely enough energy to create an exciton (bound electron–hole pair), but not
enough energy to separate the electron and hole (which are electrically attracted
to each other). In this situation, there is a distinction between "optical band gap"
and "electronic band gap" (or "transport gap"). The optical bandgap is the
threshold for photons to be absorbed, while the transport gap is the threshold for
creating an electron–hole pair that is not bound together. The optical bandgap is at
lower energy than the transport gap.
In almost all inorganic semiconductors, such as silicon, gallium arsenide, etc., there
is very little interaction between electrons and holes (very small exciton binding
energy), and therefore the optical and electronic bandgap are essentially identical,
and the distinction between them is ignored. However, in some systems, including
organic semiconductors and single-walled carbon nanotubes, the distinction may
be significant”.
Fermi Level and Fermi Energy
• In metal, there is one partially filled band
which is a result of conduction band
overlapping with valance band.

• In this Band lowest energy levels are

filled first.

• The highest occupied energy level at

absolute zero temperature i.e. 0 K is
called the Fermi level and the energy
corresponding to it is called the Fermi
energy and is denoted by
 Fermi-Dirac Distribution Function

• How electrons are distributed among the various energy levels in the
conduction band at a given temperature?

• The statistical distribution function which gives the probability of an electron

occupying an energy level E at thermal equilibrium is known as Fermi-Dirac
Distribution Function and it is given by the following expression

where, is Boltzmann constant and is Fermi Energy

Fermi-Dirac Distribution Function

This indicates all energy levels below EF are

completely filled at absolute zero temperature

This indicates all energy levels above EF are

completely empty at absolute zero temperature

Fermi-Dirac Distribution function cannot give us

probability of occupancy of Fermi level at 0 K.

At T > 0 K , probability of occupancy for Fermi

level is always half
Probability Distribution Functions (PDFs)
 Fermi Level in Semiconductor
• In semiconductors, we have two types of carriers – electrons and holes.

• The Fermi level in semiconductor is defined as the reference level that gives
the probability of occupancy of states in conduction band as well as
unoccupied states in valence band.

• In intrinsic semiconductor, the Fermi level lies at the centre of the forbidden
band indicating that the states occupied in conduction band is equal to the
states unoccupied in the valence band.

• In extrinsic semiconductor, the position of Fermi level depends both on

doping and on the temperature.
Fermi Level in Intrinsic Semiconductor
Fermi Level in Extrinsic Semiconductor

• In n-type S.C, the concentration of

free electrons in C.B is much higher
than that of holes in V.B. Hence,
Fermi level EF is shifted upward
towards C.B.
• At 0 K, EF lies between EC and ED.
• With the increase in temperature, the
concentration of electrons and holes
changes and the position of EF also
changes.
• At T > 0 K, EF may shift below ED but is
always above the centre of forbidden
gap.
Fermi Level in Extrinsic Semiconductor

• In p-type S.C, the concentration of

holes in V.B is much higher than that
of electrons in C.B. Hence, Fermi level
EF is shifted downward towards V.B.
• At 0 K, EF lies between EV and EA.
• With the increase in temperature, the
concentration of electrons and holes
changes and the position of EF also
changes.
• At T > 0 K, EF may shift above EA but is
always below the centre of forbidden
gap.
 Effect of Doping on Fermi Level
• At 0 K, the Fermi energy level EF lies
n-type semiconductor between the conduction band energy
EC and donor energy level ED.
• With the increase in doping
concentration, more donor levels are
available which result in broadening
of the donor levels.
• Due to more donor levels near
conduction band, more electrons get
transferred from these donor levels to
conduction band, resulting in increase
in electron concentration in the
conduction band.
 Effect of Doping on Fermi Level

n-type semiconductor
• As the electron concentration in
conduction band increases, Fermi
level shifts towards conduction band.
• With very high doping concentration
of donor atoms, the Fermi level may
enter the conduction band.
• Presence of Fermi level inside the
conduction band indicates very high
level of doping.
 Effect of Doping on Fermi Level
• At 0 K, the Fermi energy level EF lies
p-type semiconductor between the valance band energy EV
and acceptor energy level EA.
• With the increase in doping
concentration, more acceptor levels
are available which result in
broadening of the acceptor levels.
• Due to more acceptor levels near
valence band, more electrons from
valence band get transferred to these
acceptor levels resulting in increase in
hole concentration in the valence
band.
 Effect of Doping on Fermi Level

p-type semiconductor
• As the hole concentration in valence
band increases, Fermi level shifts
towards valence band.
• With very high doping concentration
of acceptor atoms, the Fermi level
may enter the valence band.
• Presence of Fermi level inside the
valence band indicates very high level
of doping.
Effect of Temperature on Fermi Level
Effect of Temperature on Fermi Level
 Semiconductor Diode laser:

Definition:

It is specifically fabricated p-n junction diode. This diode emits laser light when it is
forward biased.

Principle:

When a p-n junction diode is forward biased, the electrons from n – region and the holes
from the p- region cross the junction and recombine with each other.

During the recombination process, the light radiation (photons) is released from a certain
specified direct band gap semiconductors like Ga-As. This light radiation is known as
recombination radiation.

The photon emitted during recombination stimulates other electrons and holes to
recombine. As a result, stimulated emission takes place which produces laser.
 Figure shows the basic
construction of semiconductor
laser. The active medium is a p-n
junction diode made from the
single crystal of gallium arsenide.
This crystal is cut in the form of a
platter having thickness of
0.5μmm.

The platelet consists of two parts having an electron conductivity (n-type) and
hole conductivity (p-type).

The photon emission is stimulated in a very thin layer of PN junction (in order
of few microns). The electrical voltage is applied to the crystal through the
electrode fixed on the upper surface. The end faces of the junction diode are well
polished and parallel to each other. They act as an optical resonator through which
the emitted light comes out.
 Figure shows the energy level diagram of semiconductor laser. When the PN
junction is forward biased with large applied voltage, the electrons and holes are
injected into junction region in considerable concentration

The region around the junction contains a large amount of electrons in the
conduction band and a large amount of holes in the valence band. If the population
density is high, a condition of population inversion is achieved. The electrons and holes
recombine with each other and this recombination’s produce radiation in the form of
light.

When the forward – biased voltage is increased, more and more light photons are
emitted and the light production instantly becomes stronger. These photons will trigger
a chain of stimulated recombination resulting in the release of photons in phase.

The photons moving at the plane of the junction travels back and forth by
reflection between two sides placed parallel and opposite to each other and grow in
strength.
After gaining enough strength, it gives out the laser beam of wavelength 8400o A . The
wavelength of laser light is given by

Where Eg is the band gap energy in joule.

Characteristics:

1. Type: It is a solid state semiconductor laser.

2. Active medium: A PN junction diode made from single crystal of gallium arsenide is used as an active medium.

3. Pumping method: The direct conversion method is used for pumping action

4. Power output: The power output from this laser is 1mW.

5. Nature of output: The nature of output is continuous wave or pulsed output.

6. Wavelength of Output: gallium arsenide laser gives infrared radiation in the wavelength 8300 to 8500 o A .
Advantages:

1. It is very small in dimension. The arrangement is simple and compact.

2. It exhibits high efficiency.

3. The laser output can be easily increased by controlling the junction current

4. It is operated with lesser power than ruby and CO2 laser.

5. It requires very little auxiliary equipment

6. It can have a continuous wave output or pulsed output.

Disadvantages:

1. It is difficult to control the mode pattern and mode structure of laser.

2. The output is usually from 5 degree to 15 degree i.e., laser beam has large divergence.

3. The purity and monochromacity are power than other types of laser

4. Threshold current density is very large (400A/mm2).

5. It has poor coherence and poor stability.

Application:

1. It is widely used in fiber optic communication

2. It is used to heal the wounds by infrared radiation

3. It is also used as a pain killer

4. It is used in laser printers and CD writing and reading.